TABLE OF CONTENT

Introduction

Dear friends,

my name is Gary Green, but everyone calls me Mr. Green. I am an enthusiastic gardener. My greatest hobby is to dig in the soil for days and plant various plants to take care of them. I have a big garden right next to my house and it appears as an idyllic landscape; however, vegetables, fruits and herbs are not the main part of it. Like most of the English gardens, I focused on a beautiful green lawn and planted these majestic trees that give a nice shade, where I can drink a cup of delicious green tea with my friends. I like challenges; therefore, I grow many foreign plants, some of which were sent to me by my penfriend Zdravka from Slovenia. She is as enthusiastic about plants as I am. She has a lot of knowledge about herbs and is crazy about them. Zdravka gained the knowledge about the plants as she has been collecting them since her childhood. Her grandmother has always helped her in recognizing the plants. They have been picking the herbs in various places: on meadows, fields, forests and creeks. Right next to her house she has a garden, there is a special corner only for the most beautiful, blossoming and aromatic herbs.

I met Zdravka in a beautiful botanical garden in the UK. I go there every week and try to find some good ideas for my own garden. When Zdravka came to see the garden, I recognized her passion for herbs. I asked her a few questions about the chamomile because I wasn’t sure if the one in my garden has the right conditions for growing. She explained to me what the chamomile needs to grow well. Afterwards, I told her some interesting facts about the botanical garden. We bonded over the mutual passion for botany and exchanged addresses. We have been writing letters since. Experiences and tips have been shared to help each other in growing beautiful plants. Recently, Zdravka informed me about a botanical garden in Maribor, Slovenia, which she has a passion for. Over the years, its collection of plants has grown significantly so she decided to invite me.

At the Botanical garden of the University of Maribor, I met some of Zdravka’s friends. We got along because of shared interest in botany. One of Zdravka’s friends toured us around the garden and showed us the local vegetation and some untypical plants that grow well in this region. I wrote down all the interesting things I saw as well as my impressions of the garden and its plants. Did this peak your curiosity? You will get an insight into my notes in the following pages.

1 Botanical garden of University of Maribor Pivola

The Botanical garden covers an area of about 15 hectares and is the biggest University botanical garden in Slovenia. The garden is separated into 14 units which can be seen in the picture below.

It was established on 24 May by the then dean of Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, prof. dr. Božidar Krajnčič. The garden is involved in the Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). First work was done in 1996, right after the Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences got the Pohorski dvor estate, where there is also one of the oldest castles in Slovenia called Hompoš. This castle has been the registered office of the Faculty since 2008.

2 What is a botanical garden and how does it work?

A botanical garden is an institution where plants are grown for study and scientific purposes. The botanical garden is not private. In contrast, everyone who is interested in plants or wants just a walk in the nature is welcome here.

The aim of the botanical garden and its leading purpose is the conservation and protection of self-sown, decorative and useful plant species. In addition, many scientific plant researches in the field of genetics, selective breeding, physiology and botanical are done. The Botanical Garden of University of Maribor offers a study environment for students from the University of Maribor and other foreign students; thus they are organizing guided tours through the Garden and holding botanical workshops for elementary and high school students.

The Botanical Garden of the University of Maribor represents the Slovenian plant diversity, especially the typical species and peculiarities of the Pohorje hill and Northeast Slovenia. Here you can find endangered, rare or almost extinct plant species (on the Slovene website there is a list of endangered plants and with a click on the scientific name of a plant you get an translation of its name into English). Among all these local plants you can also find some examples from other continents (Asia, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand).

3 Let’s have a look at the plants and what is typical for them

Plants are living organisms that belong to one so-called kingdom (Kingdom Plantae). It is estimated that the total number of the known plants is of the order of 400,000 species. Plants include familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology. The plant life occurring in a particular region or time is called flora.

Although very different, all plants have the ability to use the energy from the sun to create energy in the form of sugars. The described process, called photosynthesis, takes place in the chloroplasts. The cell walls of plants are built up of cellulose. Plants are therefore the basis of all life on earth producing all of the food that animals and people eat.

According to cell type, plants are classified as eukaryotes (they carry a nucleus), while according to feeding type, we also call them autotrophs (they synthesize their own food with the help of solar energy; exceptions are some members that have lost its chlorophyll and become parasitic plants).

According to the plant’s life cycle (one seed-to-seed life cycle), plants are divided into the following categories:

According to the physical form and external structure, plants are divided into the following categories:

 

3.1 Roots and root systems of plants

In its simplest form, the term root architecture refers to the spatial configuration of a plant’s root system. This system can be extremely complex and is dependent on multiple factors such as the species of the plant itself, the composition of the soil and the availability of nutrients.

The configuration of the root systems serves to structurally support the plant, compete with other plants and for the uptake of nutrients from the soil. Roots grow to specific conditions, which, if changed, can impede a plant's growth. For example, a root system that has developed in dry soil may not be as efficient in flooded soil, yet plants are able to adapt to other changes in the environment, such as seasonal changes.

The root architecture plays the key role in providing a secure supply of nutrients and water as well as anchorage and support.

3.2 Plant stem

A stem is one of the two main structural axes of a vascular plant, the other being the root. The stem is normally divided into nodes and internodes:

The term "shoots" is often confused with "stems"; "shoots" generally refers to new fresh plant growth including both stems and other structures like leaves or flowers. In most plants the stems are located above the soil surface but some plants have underground stems.

Stems have four main functions:

Types of stems:

Underground stems

Sub-aerial stems

Aerial stems

 

3.3 Plant leaf

A leaf is an organ of a vascular plant and is the principal lateral appendage of the stem. The leaves and the stem together form the shoot. Although leaves can be seen in many different shapes, sizes and textures, a typical leaf is a thin, dorsiventrally flattened organ, borne above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. In most leaves the primary photosynthetic tissue, the palisade mesophyll, is located on the upper side of the blade or lamina of the leaf.

Basic leaf types:

Stem leaf

Arrangement on the stem (Phyllotaxis):

Alternate: one leaf, branch, or flower part attached at each point or node on the stem, and leaves alternate direction to a greater or lesser degree along the stem.

Basal: Arising from the base of the stem.

Cauline: Arising from the aerial stem.

Opposite: Two leaves, branches, or flower parts attached at each point or node on the stem. Leaf attachments are paired at each node and decussate if, as typical, each successive pair is rotated 90° progressing along the stem.

Whorled, or verticillate: Three or more leaves, branches, or flower parts attached at each point or node on the stem. As with opposite leaves, successive whorls may or may not be decussate, rotated by half the angle between the leaves in the whorl (i.e., successive whorls of three rotated 60°, whorls of four rotated 45°, etc.). Opposite leaves may appear whorled near the tip of the stem. Pseudoverticillate describes an arrangement only appearing whorled, but not actually so.

Rosulate: Leaves form a rosette.

Rows: The term, distichous, literally means two rows. Leaves in this arrangement may be alternate or opposite in their attachment. The term, 2-ranked, is equivalent. The terms, tristichous and tetrastichous, are sometimes encountered. For example, the "leaves" (actually microphylls) of most species of Selaginella are tetrastichous, but not decussate.

3.4 Plant flower

A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in plants that are floral (plants of the division Magnoliophyta, also called angiosperms). The biological function of a flower is to effect reproduction, usually by providing a mechanism for the union of sperm with eggs. Flowers may facilitate outcrossing (fusion of sperm and eggs from different individuals in a population) or allow selfing (fusion of sperm and egg from the same flower). Many flowers have evolved to be attractive to animals, so as to cause them to be vectors for the transfer of pollen. After fertilization, the ovary of the flower develops into fruit containing seeds.

Perianth

Collectively the calyx and corolla form the perianth.

 

3.5 Fruit of plants

Fruit = usually pericarp (tissue that develops after fertilization from outer layer of the flower(s)) + matured seed(s)

The seed develops in the fruit. The seeds are made up of seedling coat (testa) and embryo (young plant developed from zygote after fertilisation). As a young plant, the embryo is initially a heterotrophic organism (does not carry photosynthesis), so it needs nutrients for growth. These nutrients are, in some plants, located in a special nutritional tissue (endosperm, perisperm) and in others in the embryo itself.

4 Systematic Field

As it is common in botanical gardens, the Garden of UM also has a systematic field with plants ranked from the simplest to the very complex ones. The field is separated into beds and every single bed belongs to one family in the kingdom of plants. Naturally, the Garden does not have every single family of the plant kingdom as there is not enough space for all the species, but they picked the most relevant and distinctive species.

Believe it or not, but in this botanical garden they have 51 of these beds. They are arranged in a phylogenetic order and lead the visitor from the simplest plants (Ranunculaceae or buttercup family) to the most complex (Poaceae or Gramineae – grasses, Monocotyledon or monocots).

The systematic field is designed for learning about the systematics of plants. The classification of plants or plant taxonomy is the science that identifies, describes, classifies, and names plants. The plant's classification is based on scientific specimens such as anatomy, physiology and genetics. Mostly the plants are put in the same family, if the flowers look alike, but this is not the only factor for classification.

For botanists the flower is an important part of the plant; therefore, botanists developed a means to represent the structure of a flower using numbers, letters and various symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form to distinguish the structure of a bloom. It is called floral formula. This is just the tip of the iceberg, because botanists also like to draw. They decided to draw some floral diagrams and with these it is easier to visualize the form of the flower. The blossoms are drawn in a cross-cut, so that it is easier to tell apart the position of every single  piece of the flower.

Every plant has its own name and surname just like people do, the only difference is that the name of a flower tells us what kind of flower it is. The first word or the name shows us which genus the plant belongs to and the second word is the so called scientific epithet and it describes the plant inside the genus group. For example, album – white, rubrum – red, minor – small, vulgaris – common etc. For more information about the purpose of the Latin or botanical name follow the link on the most common epithets and their meaning.

The word that is sometimes hard to pronounce is the scientific name of the botanical family. The agreement between botanists is that scientific family names have the ending -eceae.

In biology, a species (abbreviated sp., with the plural form species abbreviated spp.) is the basic unit of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction.

All species are given a two-part name, a "binomial". The first part of a binomial is the genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature, also sometimes in zoological nomenclature). For example, Solanum tuberosum – potato, Viola odorata – wood violet, Primula veris – cowslip, Malva silvestris – common mallow.

The guy who's at fault for formalising the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature is Carl Linnaeus (1707−1778). In his time, he already used a classification of class, species, genus, type, and version. You can read more about his life and work, if you follow the link above.

In the botanical nomenclature (naming) it is furtherly agreed that the scientific names of the species and names of all taxa are written differently other than the rest of the text. The scientific names in the manuscript are underlined, otherwise we write them in italics. In the case of taxa lower than the species (subspecies - ssp., variant - var. and form - f.) we give these levels in upright and scientific names in italics. 

In addition to the scientific name of the taxon (written in italics), we also write the name of the author of the naming (upright).

The scientific denominations of living beings are governed by international codes:

 Therefore, what is a correct way of scientifically naming, for example, red cabbage?

Because the plant life is so diverse and because humans have always had a keen eye for its surroundings, we categorized them into different groups. The science, dealing with the classification of organisms into the system is called taxonomy, units in the system are taxa. We said that species is a basic taxonomic unit, similar and related plant species are combined into a higher taxon called genus, similar genera (plural of genus) are merging into a family, further similar families are merging into a order, and thus following the hierarchy of taxa to the kingdom of plants.

4.1 The most important levels in the taxonomic plant hierarchy:

There is a 'shortcut' in English, which helps us easily remember the order of taxa in descending order. We make the shortcut by taking the initial letters of the English names of the taxa from the highest (Kingdom) to the basic taxon (Species) and we get the following sentence: King Phil Cry Out For Good Soup. Simple stuff.

4.2 Taxonomic overview of the plants that grow in the systematical field of Botanical Garden UM

 

The division of flowering plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons is very old, it is not based on phylogeny and is, therefore, an example of artificial plant classification based on few, easily identifiable signs. For the sake of simplicity, the division has been retained, and some still divide them in this way. Dicotyledons are originally an older group of plants.

There are also units over some taxa, for example, super-order (Superordo), super-family (Superfamilia) and units under taxon, for example trinomen (Subdivisio), subgenus (Subclassis), suborder (Subordo), subfamily (Subfamilia). Between the family and genus are the taxa Tribus (tribe) and Subtribus (subtribe).

To put some plants in the system as closely as possible, we also use taxa below the plant species. The lower systematic categories (taxa) of the species are subspecies, subsp., varieties (Varietas, var.) and form (Forma, f.).

Some attributes that divide plants into monocotyledons and dicotyledons are:

Organ

Dicotyledons

Monocotyledons

Seed

Two embryonic leaves or cotyledons

Contain only one embryonic leaf or cotyledon

Roots

Develops from the radicle. Primary root often persists forming strong taproot and secondary roots

Primary root of short duration, replaced by adventitial roots forming fibrous or fleshy root systems

Plant stem: Vascular bundles

Ring of primary bundles with cambium, differentiated into cortex and stele (eustelic)

Numerous scattered bundles in ground parenchyma, cambium rarely present, no differentiation between cortical and stelar regions

Leaves

Broad, seldom sheathed, petiole common often with stipules. Veins usually reticulate (pinnate or palmate).

Leaf shape oblong or linear, often sheathed at base, petiole seldom developed, stipules absent. Major leaf veins usually parallel

Flowers

Fours (tetramerous) or fives (pentamerous)

Parts in threes (trimerous) or multiples of three (e.g. 3, 6 or 9 petals)

Flower type

Double 

Single (perigon)

Pollen: Number of apertures (furrows or pores)

Tricolpate (three)

Monocolpate (single aperture or colpus)

In the groups of monocotyledons and dicotyledons in the systematic field with plant species are planted beds representing the following botanical families:

 

Botanical Family

Representative Plants

Scientific Name – Slovene Name

Foto

buttercup or crowfoot family

Ranunculaceae

Hellebore

Kingcup

Anemone

Liverleaf or liverwort

Pasqueflower

Clematis

Creeping buttercup

Helleborus – teloh

Caltha – kalužnica,

Anemone – vetrnica,

Hepatica – jetrnik,

Pulsatilla – kosmatinec,

Clematis – srobot,

Ranunculus – zlatica

slika

the rose family

Rosaceae

the Gallic rose, French rose

Common lady's mantle

Cinquefoils

Apple

Rowan and mountain-ash

Rosa gallica – galski šipek

Alchemilla – plahtica

Potentilla – petoprstnik

Malus – jablana (planted in rosarium)

Sorbus aucuparia – jerebika (planted in rosarium)

slika

legume, pea, or bean family 

Fabaceae

Clover or trefoil

Bush clover

Bean

Pea

Peavines or vetchlings

Vetches

Lentil

Trifolium – detelja

Lespedeza – grmasta detelja

Phaesolus – fižol

Pisum – grah

Lathyrus – grahor

Vicia – bob

Lens – leča

slika

the crucifers or the cabbage family

Brassicaceae

Bittercress or herb barbara

Watercress

Horseradish

Shepherd's purse

White mustard

Radish

Turnip

Kale

Cauliflower

Broccoli

Kohlrabi

Rapeseed or oilseed rape

Barbarea vulgaris – Navadna barbica,

Nasturtium officinale – Potočarka

Armoracia rusticana – hren

Capsella bursa pastoris – plešec

Sinapsis alba – gorčica

Raphanus – redkev,

Brassica rapa – repa

Brassica oleracea var. sabauda – ohrovt

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis – cvetača,

Brassica oleracea var. italica – brokoli

Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes – kolerabica

Brassica napus – ogrščica

slika

Nightshades

Solanaceae

Mandrake or autumn mandrake

Wolfberry or gojiberry

Tobacco

Potato and tomato

Devil's trumpets

Cape gooseberry

Henbane bell

Mandragora autumnalis – mandragora

Lycium – goji jagoda

Nicotiniana – tobak

Solanum tuberosum in Lycopersicon esculentum – krompir, paradižnik

Datura – kristavec

Physalis – perujsko volčje jabolko

Scopolia carniolica – bunika

slika

the mint or deadnettle family

Lamiaceae

Dragonmouth and Pyrenean Dead-nettle

Mint

Oregano

Garden sage or Sage,

Lavender

hedgenettle, heal-all or self-heal

Horminum – pirenejska zmajevka,

Lamium purpureum – mrtva kopriva

Mentha – meta

Origanum – navadna dobra misel,

Salvia – okrasna kadulja, ruska kadulja, drobnolistni žajbelj

Lavandula – sivka

Stachys – močvirski čišljak

slika

the aster, daisy, composite or sunflower family

Asteraceeae

Pot marigold, ruddles, common marigold or Scotch marigold

Bristle club-rush or bristleleaf bulrush

Sneezeweed

Hemp-agrimony or holy rope

Sunflower

Santolina

Common ragweed, annual ragweed or low ragweed

Coltsfoot

Butterbur

Artemisia

Camomile

Daisy

Calendula – ognjič

Isolepis setacea – dvozob

Helenium – helenij

Eupatorium cannabinum – konjska griva

Helianthus annuus – navadna sončnica,

Santolina – santolina

Ambrosia artemisiifolia – pelinolistna žvrklja

Tussilago farfara – lapuh

Petasites – repuh

Artemisia – pelin

Chamomilla – kamilica

Bellis – marjetica

slika

Grasses

Poaceae 

Foxtail grass

Timothy

Satintails

Prairie cordgrass, tall marshgrass or sloughgrass

Oat

Tufted hairgrass or tussock grass

Reed

Corn, maize

Alopecurus – lisičji rep 

Phleum – mačji rep

Imperata – japonska krvava trava

Spartina pectinata – pisanolistno metličje

Avena sativa – oves

Deschampsia cespitosa – rušnata masnica

Phragmites sp. – bambus

Zea mays – koruza

slika

onion family

 Alliaceae

German garlic, or broadleaf chives

Wild garlic or wood garlic

Garlic

Chives

Leek

Onion

Allium montanum – gorski luk

A. ursinum – čemaž

A. sativum – česen

A. schoenoprasum – drobnjak

A. porrum – por

A. cepa – čebula

slika

In the buttercup or crowfoot family we also have greater pasque flower, which belongs to indigenous plant species. There are nearly over 3,000 indigenous plant species in Slovenia.

The greater pasque flower is autochthonous in a certain geographical area (= spontaneous, indigenous or domestic) whose presence is the result of natural processes. Species that are intentionally or unintentionally introduced in an area (not native) are called non-native species. Some non-native species, which settle in the new environment, are extensively expanding and thus threatening autochthonous species. They are called invasive alien species.

Related to autochthonous, but a narrower term is an endemic. An endemic is an indigenous species that can be found in a narrow-bounded area − the species is unique in this area.

The endemic opposite concept is a cosmopolitan plant species. Cosmopolitan is a type of prevalence that extends throughout the whole world or much of the world.

Among the plants there are 22 endemics in Slovenia.

Find out more about plant endemic plants here.

5 My notes on herb garden

5.1 Herbs / medical plants presentation of the collection from Botanic garden UM

The collection of medicinal herbs in the Botanical Garden of University of Maribor was chosen and planted by the technical assistant M. Sc. Ignac Janžekovič. In this collection, there are more than 30 plants that are more or less common in our daily lives. They are known in the form of tea infusions, herbs and as pharmaceutical and cosmetic ingredients. They could be planted in gardens, pots or collected on meadows or in forests.

Herbs have been known in Slovenia for centuries and through the years a lot of them have changed or they just obtained new names or nicknames. Slovenians use more than one name for a single plant.

5.2 Definitions of herbs/medicinal plants

For a botanist herbs are plants used for food, flavouring, medicine, or fragrances for their savoury or aromatic properties. Every year above-ground parts of a plant die and start to grow again in spring. He might add that herbs are herbaceous plants, that is to say they are soft and the stem is not wooden. As an example, he would list the following herbaceous plants: daisy, chamomile, nettle, thyme, oregano and St. John’s worth and the like. On the other hand, plants with woody stems such as trees (fruit trees: apple, pear, plum, apricot, peach, walnut, etc. and timber sorts such as: spruce, fir, beech tree, larch, pine, hawthorn, etc.) and shrubs (hazel, blueberry, aronia, raspberry, bramble, elder tree, etc.) would not be recognized as herbs by a botanist.

For an herbalist herbs are plants with active ingredients. According to the active ingredients herbs are divided into different groups such as aromatic, medical, toxic and those who are used as spices. Therefore, herbs refer to both plants with woody stems (trees or shrub) or without woody stems, algae or lichen.

Herbs – these plants have been used by humans for thousands of years. There are many kinds of them; however, we are continually discovering new sorts of herbs, especially for medical purposes. The medical treatment with herbs is named phytotherapy.

Not all herbs are safe to use. What is more, some of them are toxic and dangerous. Similar to mushrooms, there are some kinds of herbs that mustn’t be used as they, or at least a part of them, might be toxic.

English name

Slovene name

Scientific / latin name

Photo

Poisonous plant parts

Common Ivy

Navadni bršljan

Hedera helix

http://www.vzajemnost.si/media/arhiv/img/2009_01/Brsljan.jpg

Fruit, leaf, juice from leaves

Jimsonweed / Devil's snare

Navadni kristavec

Datura stramonium

http://galerija.foto-narava.com/albums/userpics/100972/kristavec.jpg

Herb

Castorbean

Kloščevec

Ricinus communis

https://mijntuin.s3.amazonaws.com/plants/2950.jpg https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/-P3D5icbALcM/Vb-fwBIWRkI/AAAAAAAANp4/vGP6S0iaiuI/s640-Ic42/DSC08051.jpg

Seed, sap

Lily of the valley

Šmarnica

Convallaria majalis

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Convallaria_majalis2.jpg

Herb

Common peony

Potonika

Paeonia officinalis

http://www.pomurske-lekarne.si/img/w770/upload/gallery/61/potonika.jpg http://www.cvetlicna.si/files/04_okrasni_vrt/okrasni_vrt-potonike_temne.jpg

Herb

Christmas rose

Črni teloh

Helleborus niger

http://matejtonejec.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/P4071495.jpg

Herb

Giant hogweed

Orjaški dežen

Heracleum mantegazzianum

http://tujerodne-vrste.info/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/orjaski-dezen.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Reuzenbereklauw.JPG/1024px-Reuzenbereklauw.jpg

Herb, herb juice

Yew or english yew

Tisa

Taxus baccata

http://www.klubgaia.com/si/imagelib/source/default/rastline/okrasni-vrt/Tisa-Taxus.jpg

Herb

Elder, elderberry

Črni bezeg

Sambucus nigra

http://www.farmedica.si/images/cmsimage/800_crni_bezeg.jpg

Leaf, bark and root

Aconite, monkshood

Preobjeda

Aconitum spp.

http://slike.hribi.net/slike4/0298463174795_20140719_Velika_planina_030.jpg http://slike.hribi.net/slike4/0278466847152_20140829_Kal_ki_greben_220.jpg

Herb

Garden tulip

Vrtni tulipan

Tulipa gesneriana

http://nwtripfinder.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/03/tulips1.jpg http://www.virboga.de/pics/big/002940.jpg

Tuber and blossom

Hedge bindweed

Plotni slak

Convolvulus sepium

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Calystegia_April_2008-1.jpg/1280px-Calystegia_April_2008-1.jpg

Herb

Savin juniper / savin

Smrdljivi brin

Juniperus sabina

http://dryades.units.it/dryades/plants/foto/pics/TS104286.jpg

Herb

Hemlock

Mišjak

Conium maculatum

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Conium.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Hemlockseeds.jpg

Herb

Thuja / cedar

Klek

Thuja spp.

http://galerija.foto-narava.com/albums/userpics/10083/klek.jpg https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Thuja_occidentalis.jpg

Herb

February daphne

Navadni volčin

Daphne mezereum

http://dryades.units.it/dryades/plants/foto/TS155211.jpg

Herb

Belladonna

Volčja češnja

Atropa belladonna

https://metinalista.si/wp-content/uploads/Volcja-cesnja.jpg http://hribi.net/slike5/IMG_01297141627.jpg

Herb

 

Slovenian Regulation on the Classification of Medicinal Plants sets which medicinal plants (herbs) and preparations made from such plants may be used without the supervision of a medical practitioner and the use of which must always be supervised. The regulation classifies medicinal plants into four groups.

  1. Herbs permitted for use in foods, including food supplements, provided that no medicinal claims are made = H
  2. Herbs permitted for use in over-the counter medicines = Z
  3. Herbs permitted for use in prescription only medicines = ZR
  4. Herbs prohibited from use in all types of food and medicinal products = ND

Find out more about the described groups …

Let’s take a look at some of these toxic plants in the surrounding environment. It is good to know them very well; however, it is better to leave them behind.

Hedera helix (common ivy) is an evergreen climbing plant that can grow to heights of 20 to 30 m (66–98 ft.) where suitable surfaces (trees, cliffs, walls) are available. These plants can act as ground covers where no vertical surfaces occur. The ivy is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Within its native range, the species is greatly valued for attracting wildlife. The flowers are visited by over 70 species of nectar-feeding insects, and the berries eaten by at least 16 species of birds. But the white juice that comes out of the stem can be toxic for humans.

In Europe, it is frequently planted to cover walls and the government recommends growing it on buildings for its ability to cool the interior in summer, while providing insulation in winter, as well as protecting the covered building from soil moisture, temperature fluctuations and direct exposure to heavy weather. Further uses include weed suppression in plantings, beautifying unsightly facades and providing additional green by growing on tree trunks. When this juice touches our skin, we can react allergic to it and it causes itching.

Nerium oleander is a shrub or a small tree and toxic in all its parts. It is most commonly known as nerium or oleander. You doubtless have seen this plant before, maybe as a decorative plant in a pot, or you admire the beautiful blossoms of it when you walk at the Mediterranean Sea. It is highly toxic, so it is better to leave it alone.

There are some more decorative plants that are toxic to humans: Jimsonweed or Devil's snare (Datura stramonium L.), Castorbean (Ricinus communis L.), Convallaria (Convallaria majalis L.), Rhododendron, Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea L.), Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis L.), Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.), Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier), bigleaf hydrangea, French hydrangea (Hydrangea macrophylla).

Most of these plants are considered to have healing active substances if they are given at a lower dosage. However, it is thought that

DO NOT PICK OR TOUCH ANY PLANT YOU ARE NOT FAMILIAR WITH ITS APPEARANCE. BEFORE PICKING ANY PLANT MAKE SURE YOU HAVE LEARNED TO IDENTIFY THE PLANT.

What is more, you should never harvest plants that are rare or protected. You can find the List of endangered plant species in Slovenia in the Rules on the inclusion of endangered plant and animal species in the Red List. The Rules list all the endangered plant and animal species in Slovenia: pteridophytes, seed plants, mosses, mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, insects and mushrooms. You can find the Red List as Annex 1. The species appear in various threat status categories.

5.3 What are herbs used for?

Herbs have been used by humans for thousands of years (History of herbalism). They are especially known for their active substances, which are produced in biochemical processes called metabolism. There are several active herbal substances, with the main ones being: carbohydrates, fats, flavonoids, glycosides, saponins, bitter substances, tannin, essential oils, vitamins and many others.

In the life of a plant, active ingredients play different roles; they can function as a communication media with the environment, they attract pollinators, some of them protect the plant from disease or pest, others function as a waste product or they serve as an energy supply.

The substances define the usefulness of herbs. Herbs with substances that have a positive effect on the health of humans and animals are called medicinal plants. They are used to prevent, relieve disease signs and chronic diseases and during the recovery period. However, it is important to note that the use of medicinal plants cannot replace the visit of a general practitioner in the case of acute or complex chronic diseases.

Because of the taste and smell of the active ingredients some herbs are used in cooking (kitchen herbs), mixing drinks or food preserving. Others are used for making essential oils that can also be used in cosmetics.

5.4 What part of the herb to harvest and where to harvest them?

In some herbs, the active ingredients are evenly distributed throughout the plant. In such cases, the whole plant can be harvested. On the other hand, the proportion of the active ingredients may be increased in individual parts of a plant. In such cases we only collect certain plant parts (roots, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds).

The best place to harvest herbs is an unpolluted place, so don’t pick them along roads or walking paths; herbs shouldn’t be collected near city centres, factories, rubbish dumps and fields treated with pesticides. Let's not be selfish by picking the number of herbs, but just as we need. When harvesting we must be careful that the herb is minimally damaged. For example, when we collect the roots we don’t dig out all of them. In this way, the herb will recover rapidly and in the spring, it will continue to grow.

The herbs that we collect should be strong and healthy. It’s recommended to pick them on a dry sunny day; preferably in the late morning (but not in the early morning when the plants are still wet from the morning dew). This applies especially to herbs whose active ingredients are essential oils since these are abundant in the late morning.

Whole herbs should be harvested at the flowering stage, flowers when they have just opened, leaves when they are fully developed and fruits when they are ripe. The best time to dig out the roots is in spring or autumn. Bark is collected in spring, when most of the plants' nutrients flow below the bark. The bark can be easily removed with a knife.

When collecting herbs, it is important to put them in a paper bag or a basket. If necessary we can use gloves (useful when collecting nettle and milk thistle), scissors, a knife or a shovel.

Some herbs can be successfully cultivated in our home garden or even in pots on the window shell. In the garden, it is good to place them in an extra bed since most of them are herbaceous perennials. An herbal spiral is especially nice garden feature. Other herbs that last only for one year can be planted along with the vegetables because they may help grow, protect them from pests or improve the taste because of excretion from roots (chamomile, pot marigold, etc.).

5.5 How to dry and store the herbs?

Right after collecting the herbs must be dried because we don’t want the enzymes to decompose all the useful substances from the herb. Before the drying procedure the whole plants or its parts such as leaves, blossoms and fruits should not be cut. To sustain as many substances as possible the herbs should be grinded or cut right before we use them. It is important not to wash the herbs before drying except the roots.

The drying process should be done in a dry and clean place but in the shade and draught to blow away the humidity. The blossoms and whole plants can be hung together in a bouquet on a rope, with the blossoms downward.

If we do not have such a place to dry the herbs we can use a household drying appliance. But be careful, in order not to damage the active substances the temperature should not exceed 47 °C. The plants are dry when the leaves crumble easily and the stems break when bent.

Plants that have been dried and stored properly are called herbal drugs. Completely dry herbal drugs are safely stored in glass jars with a cap on it. Jars are marked with stickers containing the name of the plant, when (year + month) and where it was collected. The stock of some herbal drugs is renewed each year while some can be used for several years. Also, we do not throw older herbal drugs away as they can be used in bath water or compresses.

Without a doubt, the language of science is a Latin language, and so there are no herbs without Latin! Have a look at the table setting out both Latin and English names of drugs.

English Name

Latin Name

Example

Whole plant

Herba

Thymes

Leaf

Folium

Rosemary

Blossom

Flos

Pot marigold

Root

Radix

Horse-heal

Rootstocks

Rhizoma

Valerian

Tuber

Tuber

Cuckoo

Bulb

Bulbus

Garlic

Fruit

Fruktus

Blueberry

Seed

Semen

Flax

Bark

Cortex

Oak tree

Cone

Strobulus

Humulus

Oil

Oleum

Estragon

Essential oil

Actheroleum

Peppermint

5.6 How do we use the herbs and its drugs?

Tincture: A tincture is typically an alcoholic extract of plant or animal material or solution of such, or of a low volatility substance. Some solutions of volatile or non-volatile substances are traditionally called spirits, regardless of whether obtained by distillation or not and whether they even contain alcohol. In chemistry, a tincture is a solution that has alcohol as its solvent.

Method of preparation:

More accurate measuring can be done by combining 1 part herbs with a water-ethanol mixture of 2–10 parts, depending on the herb itself. For most tinctures, however, 1 part water to 5 parts ethanol is typical.

Herbal tinctures are not always made using ethanol as the solvent, though this is most commonly the case. Other solvents include vinegar, glycerol, diethyl ether and propylene glycol, not all of which can be used for internal consumption. Ethanol has the advantage of being an excellent solvent for both acidic and basic (alkaline) constituents.

Glycerine can also be used, but when used in tincturing fashion is generally a poorer solvent. Vinegar, being acidic, is a better solvent for obtaining alkaloids but a poorer solvent for acidic components. For individuals who choose not to ingest alcohol, non-alcoholic (glycerite) extracts offer an alternative for preparations meant to be taken internally.

Tea: It is the most common way to use herbs. After water, it is the most widely consumed drink in the world.

Infusion: Infusion is the process of extracting chemical compounds or flavours from plant material in a solvent such as water, oil or alcohol, by allowing the material to remain suspended in the solvent over time (a process often called steeping). An infusion is also the name for the resultant liquid. The process of infusion is distinct from decoction, which involves boiling the plant material, or percolation, in which the water passes through the material (as in a coffeemaker).

Decoction: Decoction is a method of extraction by boiling herbal or plant material to dissolve the chemicals of the material, which may include stems, roots, bark and rhizomes. Decoction involves first mashing the plant material to allow for maximum dissolution, and then boiling in water to extract oils, volatile organic compounds and other various chemical substances. Decoction can be used to make herbal teas, leaf teas, coffees, tinctures and similar solutions. Decoctions and infusions may produce liquids with differing chemical properties as the temperature and/or preparation difference may result in more oil-soluble chemicals in decoctions versus infusions.

Breathe in deep and experience the aroma of the herbal tea before you take your first sip. Sip your tea knowing that you’re doing something healthy for your body giving it some much needed hydration. Relax with your cup of tea as you give your body a rush of antioxidants and boost your health. If the tea is a bit too bitter for you, you can add flavour with spices and sweeteners. When you steep herbal tea at the right temperature and for the correct amount of time, you will end up with the perfect cup of a delicious drink.

Herbal syrup: An herbal syrup is prepared by combining a concentrated decoction with either honey or sugar, and sometimes alcohol. The base of such a syrup is a strong herbal decoction. Mixing a decoction with honey or sugar helps to thicken and preserve the decoction. This increases the shelf life of the decoction and often creates a soothing application that benefits situations such as sore throat, cough, dry irritated tissues, and digestive issues. The added sweetener can also help to increase the palatability of some herbs. Many folks, including children, find syrups to be delicious!

Herbal syrups make a yummy addition to beverages and food! Combine a spoonful or two of syrup with carbonated water to create a tasty and healthful herbal soda. You can also make a quick cup of tea by adding a spoonful of syrup to hot water. Enjoy your syrup by drizzling it on foods like yogurt, oatmeal, biscuits, and ice cream or just enjoy by the spoonful.

To prepare herbal syrup we need a big glass jar (volume approximately 3–4 litres) with a wide influx. First, we put the grinded herbs into the jar, then we cover them with sugar. We continue like this with a layer herbs then a layer sugar as long as the jar has space to put the ingredients in. The content will shrink after a while and then we add some more sugar and herbs to fill the jar. The syrup can develop buried in the garden soil or just put in a slightly sunny place. After 5 to 6 weeks we sieve the content and store the syrup in dark bottle and a cool place.

Fresh herb juice is very popular in folk medicine and is prepared from freshly harvested plants. The juice can be prepared in several ways:

Best way to use it is to take a teaspoon of the juice several times a day, usually before eating.

Herbal oil: Herbs are renowned for their ability to soothe rashes, bug bites, minor cuts and other common skin irritations. If you’ve got an herb garden at home or access to herbs at your local market, why not try making herb-infused oils to add to your family’s medicine chest? To prepare herbal oil you will need: dried, coarsely chopped herbs, oil (olive, sunflower, almond, cannabis, etc.), a glass jar, a strainer and cheesecloth or fine-weave towel and a bottle or jar for storage.

  1. Prepare your jar. Make sure the jar is clean and very dry. Again, any water in the jar can lead to spoilage.
  2. Fill the jar to the top with herbs.
  3. Pour oil over the herbs slowly. Using a chopstick or knife, move the herbs around to make sure all air pockets are filled with oil. Add enough oil to completely cover all the herbs, filling right up to the brim of the jar.
  4. Cover the jar, give it a few shakes, and put it in a cool place inside your house. Every now and then, give your jar a shake. It will be ready to use in 3–6 weeks. The jar may ooze or leak a little, so place it on a plate or towel.
  5. Strain the oil into your storage bottles through a cloth-lined strainer. Give the herbs a final few squeezes to get the last of that herb-soaked goodness.
  6. Cork and label your bottles. The oil should last at room temperature for up to a year; two years if you add a capsule or two of vitamin E, a natural preservative.

Herbal balm: For preparing the balm, the following are required: herbal oil, refined beeswax and essential oils (optional). Heat the oil (not too hot) and add the wax. The right proportion is about 1-part wax and 7.5 parts herbal oil. The proportions can differ, depending on how dense we want the balm. If more wax is added, the finished product will be more compact and slightly less greasy. When the wax completely dissolves in the herb oil, essential oil is added and the warm mixture is poured into small containers or bottles left open until the balm is solidified. Thus prepared balm is kept in a dark and not too warm place.

5.7 Description of certain herbs

Today thousands of herbs are known in the world. In the following table, there is a selection of 30 herbs that always come handy. Remember - we collect herbs for a period of one year; then they begin to lose their healing values. We collect them every year, but be careful when harvesting as we need to leave enough plants or plant residues from which new plants can sprout each year.

Table of specific herbs

Scientific names of plants (Latin, Slovenian)

Useful parts of the plant

Method of use, preparation

Medicinal properties

Plantago lanceolata L. – Ozkolistni trpotec

Leaf (folium)

Tea, syrup, fresh juice

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, strong cough

Plantago major L. – Veliki ali širokolistni trpotec

Leaf (folium)

Fresh plants compression, tea

Wound healing and inflammation, respiratory diseases

Thymus serpyllum – Materina dušica, timijan

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, cough, pertussis cough

Thymus vulgaris L. – Vrtni timijan, materina dušica

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea, syrup

Coughing, eliminates mucus from respiratory organs

Hyssopus officinalis L. – Navadni ožepek

Leaf (folium), flowers (flos)

Tea

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, cleanses blood

Ocimum basilicum L. – Bazilika

Blossoming herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea

Strengthening the stomach, poisoning of intestines

Satureja montana L. – Kraški šetraj

Herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea

Gastrointestinal disorders, gastric and intestinal cramps

Melissa officinalis L. – Navadna melisa

Leaf (folium)

Tea, tincture

Nervous system disorders, general strengthening, severe headache

Origanum vulgare L. – Navadna dobra misel

Herb (herba)

Tea

Stimulation of the stomach, liver and gallbladder, induces appetite

Marrubium vulgare L. – Navadna črna meta

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea, fresh juice

Lung diseases, troubles with menstruation, general body weakness

Mentha × rotundifolia Huds. – Okroglolistna meta

Leaf (folium)

Tea

Disinfectant and anti-inflammatory effect, improved liver function and gallbladder

Tussilago farfara L. – Navadni lapuh

Flowers (flos), leaf (folium)

Tea (leaves and flowers put together)

All lung diseases, eliminates mucus, cleanses blood

Artemisia dracunculus L. – Pehtran

Herb (herba)

Tea, seasoning

Induces appetite, eliminates urine

Chamomilla recutita (Matricaria chamomilla) L. – Prava kamilica

Flower (flos)

Tea, compression, bath, oil

Gentle disinfectant, strong anti-inflammatory action, soothes, soothes pain

Tanacetum vulgare L. – Navadni vratič

Flower (flos), herb (herba)

Tea

Eliminates bowel parasites, eliminates winds

Achillea millefolium L. – Navadni rman

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea

Gastric and intestinal diseases, drains water from the body, urinary tract diseases, liver disease ...

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner. – Pegasti badelj

Seeds (semen)

Tea

Chronic liver disease, liver cirrhosis

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench. – Škrlatni ameriški slamnik

Herb (herba), roots (radix)

Tea, fresh juice

Treatment and prevention of colds

Alchemilla xanthochlora/vulgaris Rothm. – Navadna plahtica

Herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea, compression

Regulates menstruation, stops bleeding and heals wounds

Fragaria vesca L. – Navadni jagodnjak

Leaf (folium), fruit (fruktus)

Tea, fresh berries

Cleanses the blood, helps with gastric and intestinal catarrh

Potentilla chinensis Ser. – Kitajski petoprstnik

Roots (rhizoma)

Tea

Intestine catarrh, intestinal disorders ...

Pulmonaria officinalis L. – Navadni pljučnik

Herb (herba), leaf (folium)

Tea

Diseases and inflammation of the respiratory organs

Symphytum officinale L. – Navadni gabez

Roots (radix)

Ointment, compression

Treatment of damaged tissue - external use

Sempervivum tectorum L. – Navadni netresk

Fresh leaves (folium)

Fresh juice

Heals wounds, sores, burns

Acorus calamus L. – Pravi kolmež

Roots (rhizoma)

Tea, root powder

Stomach weakness, poor elimination of the bile, stomach problems

Leonurus cardiaca L. – Deljenolistna srčnica

Herb (herba)

Tea

Cardiac problems with nerves, merit of respiratory organs

Chelidonium majus L. – Krvavi mlečnik

Herb (herba)

Tea

Elimination of the bile, calms the winds and cramps of the digestive tract

Hypericum perforatum L. – Šentjanževka

Herb (herba) or leaf (flos)

Oil, tea

Insomnia, anaemia, external use

Valeriana officinalis L. – Baldrijan

Roots (radix)

Tea

Nervous system disorders, insomnia, convulsions

Inula helenium L. – Veliki oman

Roots (radix)

Tea, ointment

External use, diabetes metabolic diseases

Plantago lanceolata L. – Ozkolistni trpotec

Leaf (folium)

Tea, syrup, fresh juice

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, strong cough

Plantago major L. – Veliki ali širokolistni trpotec

Leaf (folium)

Fresh plants compression, tea

Wound healing and inflammation, respiratory diseases

Thymus serpyllum – Materina dušica, timijan

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, cough, pertussis cough

Thymus vulgaris L. – Vrtni timijan, materina dušica

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea, syrup

Coughing, eliminates mucus from respiratory organs

Hyssopus officinalis L. – Navadni ožepek

Leaf (folium), flowers (flos)

Tea

Eliminates mucus from respiratory organs, cleanses blood

Ocimum basilicum L. – Bazilika

Blossoming herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea

Strengthening the stomach, poisoning of intestines

Satureja montana L. – Kraški šetraj

Herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea

Gastrointestinal disorders, gastric and intestinal cramps

Melissa officinalis L. – Navadna melisa

Leaf (folium)

Tea, tincture

Nervous system disorders, general strengthening, severe headache

Origanum vulgare L. – Navadna dobra misel

Herb (herba)

Tea

Stimulation of the stomach, liver and gallbladder, induces appetite

Marrubium vulgare L. – Navadna črna meta

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea, fresh juice

Lung diseases, troubles with menstruation, general body weakness

Mentha × rotundifolia Huds. – Okroglolistna meta

Leaf (folium)

Tea

Disinfectant and anti-inflammatory effect, improved liver function and gallbladder

Tussilago farfara L. – Navadni lapuh

Flowers (flos), leaf (folium)

Tea (leaves and flowers put together)

All lung diseases, eliminates mucus, cleanses blood

Artemisia dracunculus L. – Pehtran

Herb (herba)

Tea, seasoning

Induces appetite, eliminates urine

Chamomilla recutita (Matricaria chamomilla) L. – Prava kamilica

Flower (flos)

Tea, compression, bath, oil

Gentle disinfectant, strong anti-inflammatory action, soothes, soothes pain

Tanacetum vulgare L. – Navadni vratič

Flower (flos), herb (herba)

Tea

Eliminates bowel parasites, eliminates winds

Achillea millefolium L. – Navadni rman

Blossoming herb (herba)

Tea

Gastric and intestinal diseases, drains water from the body, urinary tract diseases, liver disease ...

Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertner. – Pegasti badelj

Seeds (semen)

Tea

Chronic liver disease, liver cirrhosis

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench. – Škrlatni ameriški slamnik

Herb (herba), roots (radix)

Tea, fresh juice

Treatment and prevention of colds

Alchemilla xanthochlora/vulgaris Rothm. – Navadna plahtica

Herb (herba) or leaf (folium)

Tea, compression

Regulates menstruation, stops bleeding and heals wounds

Fragaria vesca L. – Navadni jagodnjak

Leaf (folium), fruit (fruktus)

Tea, fresh berries

Cleanses the blood, helps with gastric and intestinal catarrh

Potentilla chinensis Ser. – Kitajski petoprstnik

Roots (rhizoma)

Tea

Intestine catarrh, intestinal disorders ...

Pulmonaria officinalis L. – Navadni pljučnik

Herb (herba), leaf (folium)

Tea

Diseases and inflammation of the respiratory organs

Symphytum officinale L. – Navadni gabez

Roots (radix)

Ointment, compression

Treatment of damaged tissue - external use

Sempervivum tectorum L. – Navadni netresk

Fresh leaves (folium)

Fresh juice

Heals wounds, sores, burns

Acorus calamus L. – Pravi kolmež

Roots (rhizoma)

Tea, root powder

Stomach weakness, poor elimination of the bile, stomach problems

Leonurus cardiaca L. – Deljenolistna srčnica

Herb (herba)

Tea

Cardiac problems with nerves, merit of respiratory organs

Chelidonium majus L. – Krvavi mlečnik

Herb (herba)

Tea

Elimination of the bile, calms the winds and cramps of the digestive tract

Hypericum perforatum L. – Šentjanževka

Herb (herba) or leaf (flos)

Oil, tea

Insomnia, anemia, external use

Valeriana officinalis L. – Baldrijan

Roots (radix)

Tea

Nervous system disorders, insomnia, convulsions

Inula helenium L. – Veliki oman

Roots (radix)

Tea, ointment

External use, diabetes metabolic diseases

 

5.8 History of herbalism

The use of plants as medicines dates as far back as the origin of humankind. Even animals are known to have consumed plants when ill. The use of plants began long before the first records of these plants appeared. Through trial and error humans discovered that some plants are good for food, and that some produce positive bodily changes and healing. What was being so attractive to many people were the pleasant smell of plants, similarities between plant herb bodies and parts of the human body. Over the millennia these observations were passed orally from generation to generation.” Find out more ...

One of the earliest Chinese herbalists was the Chinese Emperor, Chi'en Nung (Shennong) who wrote the book Pen Tsao also known as Classic of Materia Medica.” He lived about 3,700 years BC. In his book, he described over 200 domestic herbs. The collection of Papirus Ebers describing over 700 medicinal plants was introduced in 1500 BC in Egypt. Unfortunately, from the oldest literature on herbs, only a few remained.

Greeks and Romans

Throughout the centuries, many thinkers spread knowledge of useful medicinal plants. The famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460−377 BC), who is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Medicine" used many herbal remedies. He once wrote "Let Your Food Be Your Medicine; and Your Medicine be Your Food." His work includes a detailed description of some 200 medicinal plants.

The useful knowledge of the Greeks was well taken over and expanded by the Romans, who already had a rich history of cultivating useful medicinal plants. One of the greatest names from the time of the Romans is Pliny the Younger (23 to 79 AD), the author of Natural History, presenting a “valuable resource for the medicinal uses of plants in ancient medicine”.

During the time of the collapse of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the 8th century of the middle ages knowledge of herbs was transmitted primarily by the oral tradition.

Middle Ages

Herbalism was revived by Charles the Great (742−814 BC), who also instituted some important state decisions. These decisions included regulations and instructions for the cultivation of spices and herbs, regulations on the care and planting of berries and fruit trees in farms and castle gardens. This knowledge was extended primarily to the monasteries north and south of the Alps. St. Gallen from around the year 820 is an example of the monastery which today still benefits from the distant forgotten knowledge.

Another great work and research in the field of medicinal herbs done in the Middle Ages follows.

You can find some more useful information on History of herbalism here.

The medical school at Salerno, established in 984 in Italy, was one of the most famous medical schools that were being established all over Europe. One of the crowning achievements of the school was a poem on health, “Regimen Sanitatis Salernitanum”.

Paracelsus (1493−1577) was a Swiss traveller, physician and alchemist who searched for knowledge across Europe. His name was only remembered as that of a great charlatan. People did not appreciate him as they thought he followed an entirely different rationale.

Pietro Andrea Gregorio Mattioli (Matthiolus) (1501−1577) was an Italian physician who wrote Dioscorides' Materia Medica, including commentary and added plants not found in Dioscorides. Latin edition was published in 1554.

Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) was a Swedish botanist and physician. He was the important influence of understanding herbalism and plants in general. The first academic paper published by Linnaeus was Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum in which he assigned sex to plants, the field that had received little discussion. In 1753, he wrote Species Plantarum, where he described about 6000 plants. “This was the first work to consistently apply binomial names and was the starting point for the naming of plants.” He was very well aware of the fact that he would not be able to describe the entire plant kingdom himself, so he sent his disciples to the world.

Since the end of the 18th century and throughout the 19th century, scientists saw the experiments as the leading feature of any understanding of science. As a consequence, a movement of dividing medicine into classical and alternative began. Approaches to the classical methods use synthetic preparations which may be very effective as they helped prevent a wide variety of diseases, which could have been fatal for humans a hundred years ago. However, several advantages of herbal medicine should also be considered. One of the advocates of natural healing is the priest and herbalist Sebastian Kneipp (1821−1897 BC) who is “most commonly associated with the Kneipp Cure form of hydrotherapy, the application of water through various methods”. He claimed that besides classical medicine natural healing offers many valuable substances that strengthen the immune system, cleanse the body and the blood, accelerate digestion, strengthen the nerves, etc.

Herbal medicine in the areas of today’s Slovenia

In the areas of today’s Slovenia, naturopathy or alternative medicine over the centuries occurred in the form of witchcraft as people preferred "wizards" who had a special view of nature and were closer to the gods. Wizards harvested herbs and medicinal plants and used them not only for ritual purposes, but also for the treatment of humans and animals. To this day the knowledge of herbal medicine has been preserved by word of mouth. Of course, the monasteries in the Middle Ages had a great deal of the knowledge in this field since monks were copying useful books. Unfortunately, these books include only a little knowledge that was possessed by "wizards" during the 10th century and before. An example of such a monastery is 17th century monastery from the Olimje castle in Podčetrtek, around which they cultivated medicinal herbs. In the same century, the first pharmacy was established there. In 1569 the first doctor obtained a university degree in the then Carniola. However, such graduates only diagnosed, the remaining work was done by surgeons and quacks. At that time, a doctor, botanist and pharmacist was seen as one person.

The Glory of the Duchy of Carniola by Janez Vajkard Valvasor provides some common names for medicinal plants and their uses.

City Idrija was an interesting place in the Middle Ages and later centuries, many times visited by Paracelsus and Mattioli. Physical mutations probably caused by the hard life of the miners were identified in early and Middle Ages. Janez Anton Scopoli (1723−1788) came to Idrija in 1754. He was then appointed as physician of the mercury mines in Idrija, but later he also became famous for botanical, mineralogical and medical works. In the same year, the first pharmacy was established in Idrija. In 1767 Baltazar Hacquet (1739−1815), an enthusiastic botanist, was appointed as miners' surgeon in Idrija.

In 1773 Franc Hladnik, an important scientist of European standing was born in Idrija. In 1810 the Ljubljana Botanical Garden, the first Slovenian botanical garden, started operating under his leadership. The Garden was founded during the reign of Napoleon when Ljubljana was the capital of the Illyrian Provinces.

An important source of folk knowledge about herbs has always been non-national work. Only gradually the Slovenian word has been found in written and printed form. The oldest Slovene reference to the plants can be found in Dalmatin's Bible dating back from 1584, where approximately 100 different kinds of plants are mentioned. In addition, many works were translated and edited in the Slovene language such as “Arcniske bukve”.

The situation today

The Slovene folk medicine used about 500 medicinal plants. This number is above average in comparison with other European countries. Today, this number is much smaller and is still decreasing. Treatment with medicinal plants has been replaced by classical medicine, which is closely related to pharmacy, which produces medicines based on plant extracts and chemistry knowledge.

The medicinal herb market is mainly supplied by individual, usually specialized farms. The processing of herbs may start to be implemented when farmers have gained the permit for a supplementary farm activity as well as additional equipment for the production. However, smaller amounts of medicinal herbs continue to be harvested by people themselves. The knowledge of herbal medicine and medicinal plants is nevertheless spread among people; what is more, the number of young people interested in the field is increasing.

6 Fruit and vegetable garden

6.1 Fruit and vegetable garden in Botanical garden of the University of Maribor Pivola

In the fruit and vegetable garden edible and useful plants are planted both yearly and permanently. The fruit and vegetable garden was created in 2014 as a result of the Slovenian-Austrian cooperation in the Health-Care NE project - Awareness of a sustainable diet (you can find out more about the project if you follow the link (the resulting learning modules, educational film and the collection of the Alps-Adriatic Biosimpension "Eko goes to school")). The garden is equipped with information stands and the supply is managed in an organic way.

The organic way of producing and processing food is the most sustainable of all the systems, since it takes into account the balance of the soil-plant-animal-human system. What is permitted to do in organic farming is unambiguously written in the strict European and Slovene legislation. Verification of compliance with the law is carried out by authorized certification bodies and this is done along the entire path through which organic food comes on our plate.

As the name suggests, it is a fruit and vegetable garden – it’s similar to what’s in your homes. Thus, similarly to your fruit and vegetable garden the Botanical Garden of UM grows plant species, which according to their use in the culinary are classified as vegetables and fruit.

You probably know that vegetables do not grow every year on the same part of the garden. They are as nomads; they migrate to different parts of the garden and so do they in the Garden of UM. We call this crop rotation system.

In the garden we can also find a compost in which the organic material is deposited, and by microorganisms processed into compost. That the compost with which we actually feed (fertilize) plants is as good as possible, only those materials that microorganisms can process are deposited in the compost. Therefore, we cannot simply put anything on it.

The fruit and vegetable garden also has a hotel. For whom it is intended and how many stars it has, you might ask? If properly placed for useful organisms (ladybugs, green lacewings, wild bees, earwigs and others), the bug or insect hotel can be awarded a five-star rating. A great idea for a smaller garden, for the elderly and physically impaired is a raised garden bed set by the principles of permaculture. As you can see in the Botanical Garden, vegetables planted in the raised garden bed grow immensely.

In the fruit part of the garden strawberries and more important fruit shrubs (currant, gooseberries, raspberries, blackberries, highbush blueberries, aronia, etc.) are planted. Other ways for raising fruit plants (vines, kiwifruit, hardy kiwi) are also presented.

In 2017 they added some varieties of fruit trees, grafted on dwarf rootstock to the collection of fruit shrubs. Varieties of apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches and persimmon were added to the collection with a total of 38 trees. The collection is intended primarily for practical demonstration of pruning and fruit production.

In order for the vegetables and fruits to produce the most beautiful and excellent flavours, the garden should be properly designed, fertilized and supplied.

6.2 Agriculture and the fact that Slovenia is not an agricultural superpower

For 2.5 million years humans fed themselves by gathering plants and hunting animals that were not domesticated. Everything changed about 10,000 years ago, when our ancestors settled down, established permanent settlements and began cultivation and breeding of animals and plants. Agriculture (lat. ager – field, cultura - cultivation or growing) is, therefore, the first and oldest major human activity.

Agriculture developed differently and independently according to climatic conditions. For example, archaeological findings show that pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia, rice and soybeans, as well as chickens, were harvested and breed in China. In the region of the Fertile Crescent (today Egypt, Turkey and Iran) wheat, barley, peas, lens, chickpeas and flax were domesticated. Cattle was domesticated in what is today in Turkey and Pakistan. Potatoes, cotton, beans, pumpkin, tomato, pepper, corn, alpaca and many others come from South and Central America, particularly from the Andes.

Agriculture is divided into basic branches: field crop production, vegetable production, fruit growing, viticulture and livestock production. The space we are cultivating and growing on is called agricultural land. Depending on the use of the cultivated area, we further divide the area into fields, gardens, orchards, olive groves, vineyards, hop gardens or plantations, pastures and meadows.

In one of the talks at the beginning of our acquaintance farmer Max has mentioned that Slovenia was not and never will be an agricultural superpower. The reason for this lies in several facts and natural factors that define our country:

 

Slovenia is one of the most forested countries in the European Union (after Sweden and Finland; in the 3rd place), as more than half (almost 60%) of the area is covered with forests.

 

In Slovenia only about 32% of the area is intended for agricultural production. This agricultural land together represents 494,641 ha. Of these areas, there is only 479.589 ha of agricultural land used for agricultural purposes - Utilized Agricultural Area (UAA).

As much as 74.2% of the utilized agricultural area (UAA) is of those which is called area with natural and other specific constraints, that is, less-favoured areas for agriculture activities (LFAs). In Slovenia, these are mostly hilly and mountainous areas.

 

Nearly a fifth (17%) of the territory of Slovenia (about 345,000 ha) has been declared a water protection area (WPA*). Since agricultural activity may have a negative impact on the quality of drinking water, special restrictions apply to the WPA for agriculture.

Water protection areas are protected by municipal ordinances and government regulations. They are designed to protect the body of water used or intended for public drinking supply against pollution or other types of burdens that could affect the health adequacy of water or its quantity.

Slovenia fits into areas with an above-average biodiversity. To preserve the number of plant and animal species, as much as 39.7% of the surface of Slovenia belongs to the protected areas of nature. These areas therefore fit into territory under European network Natura 2000 and protected areas (national, regional, landscape parks and nature reserves). Even in protected areas, special restrictions apply to agricultural activity.

About 26,000 species of life live on the territory of Slovenia. 800 of these are endemic animal and 66 endemic plant species. Slovenia accounts for less than 0.004% of the Earth’s area and 0.014% of Earth’s land, but more than 1% of all known living species on Earth live on this surface and more than 2% of the land-based species. So many species in such a small area places our country amongst the naturally richest areas of Europe and even the world.

Slovenia is truly not an agricultural superpower. However, agriculture is an extremely important industry sector in the country.

Why?

… because food supply is one of the strategically most important areas of each country, since it meets basic human needs and affects the health and quality of life of the population.

A measure that tells us the extent to which domestic production is sufficient for domestic consumption is called self-sufficiency rate.

Do you know how much Slovenia is self-sufficient? That much in 2016.

In addition to the strategic importance of food provision, agriculture also has other socially important non-productive functions. Thus, properly developed and sustainable agriculture contributes decisively to environmental protection (contributes to the quality of water, soil, air), contributes significantly to biotic (agricultural) diversity, shapes the landscape (aesthetic and natural landscape value). Equally, agriculture, with its economic and social role, plays a vital role in the vitality and densification of the countryside. Therefore, we say agriculture is a multifunctional industry.

6.3 How do we produce food and what is the impact of agriculture on the environment and health?

In agriculture, we know three types of food production: conventional, integrated and organic farming. There are two ways to process this food: conventional and organic. Basically, these types differ in the way the farmers use fertilisers and the usage of easily soluble mineral fertilizer, synthetic plant protection means or pesticides, antibiotics for preventive treatment of animals and the use of genetically modified organism (GMO).

From all the economic industry in the world, beside traffic and heavy industry, farming is the biggest environment polluter. Farming – especially intense conventional, which is also by far the most extended, requires a huge amount of energy (fossil fuel), water (food processing, animal feeding), synthetic (easy soluble) mineral fertilizers and phytopharmaceutical means (or products) or as we know them pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, insecticides). This type of farming is hazardous for soil and water because the mineral fertilizers and pesticides may leach down into the groundwater. Then they accumulate in the plants and that’s how it ends in the fodder for animals and food for humans. Often the intensive conventional farming does not rotate the crops, and with adding chemical substances the biotic diversity lowers (biodiversity).

A big problem in farming is also the deforestation for farming purposes. This is happening mainly in South America, where the new farmland is used to grow soya, then the soya is used as a protein fodder in Europe.

Now, after the growing awareness of the hazards that conventional farming brings, the people try to reduce it and produce quality and safe food for the consumer. It is commonly known that organic food is of higher quality, contains more vitamins and minerals and simultaneously the negative effects for the environment are much lower. You can find the differences and description of all farming types in the addition.

6.3.1 Conventional farming

Conventional farming, also known as industrial agriculture, refers to farming systems which include the use of synthetic chemical fertilizers, pesticides, genetically modified organisms, Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations, heavy irrigation, intensive tillage and production in monoculture. Thus, conventional agriculture is typically highly resource and energy intensive, but also highly productive. Despite its name, conventional agricultural methods have only been in development since the late Nineteenth Century, and did not become widespread until after World War 2.

Pesticide

6.3.2 Integrated farming

Integrated farming or integrated production is a whole organic farm management system which aims to deliver more sustainable agriculture. An obtained certificate for integrated production under the national quality scheme assures the consumer that the products were produced under the technological guidelines set out in advance and that they are compliant with the national rules laying down technological requirements and restrictions on integrated production of fruit, crops, grapes and vegetables. Each year the expert working group draws up Technological guidelines for each category separately. The technological guidelines lay down detailed production rules and conditions for fruit, crops, grapes and vegetables, which are each year confirmed and published by the MAFF (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food). The rules and technological guidelines are obligatory for producers under the integrated production scheme.

Integrated production is based on stricter requirements on production and the use of plant protection products (PPP). The scheme is available to all producers meeting the requirements on integrated production and providing a complete traceability of the products. Each year the producers are controlled by an inspection body appointed on the basis of the regulation governing the technical and organisation conditions to be fulfilled by an organisation controlling the integrated agricultural products and foodstuffs. The inspection body controls the compliance with the provisions of the technological guidelines and the rules on integrated production.

As mentioned above, integrated production includes only the production of plants (vegetables, fruit, grapes, field crop) and certainly not the animal breeding and processing.

Product labels that are used for products or foodstuffs being produced in an integrated way

 

6.3.3 Organic farming

»We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children«

(Wendell Berry, an American novelist, poet, environmental activist, cultural critic, and farmer)

Organic farming:

One of the most efficient ways for sustainable agricultural use of natural resources is organic farming as it significantly contributes to the provision of public goods, preservation and improvement of biodiversity, preservation of drinking water sources, conservation of agricultural landscape and environmental protection. Furthermore, it ensures the production of high-quality food and healthy food with high nutritional contents and has the best possible impact on the sustainable management of the non-renewable natural resources and exerting the principle on adequate animal rearing.

In organic farming method production control is mandatory. A certificate issued by an inspection body is a guarantee to consumers on special production methods of organic products and foodstuffs. Organic farming relies on fertilizers of organic origin such as animal manure, compost manure, green manure and bone meal, and places emphasis on techniques such as crop rotation and companion planting. For instance, naturally occurring pesticides such as pyrethrin and rotenone are permitted, while synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are generally prohibited.

All this is controlled under the legislation of EU. There were some organizations earlier to lead, unite and assist the organic movement in its full diversity. This worldwide organization is called International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements – IFOAM.

IFOAM guarantees a control from the field to plates (= insurance for the consumer + safety for the farmer)

Komentar na shemo zgoraj:

What rules must be obeyed by organic farmers and processors?

The scheme underneath shows how the system works. Everyone who is involved in the supplier chain of organic food (farmers, processers, warehouse employees, merchants, importers, commercial agents) must obey certain rules under the legislation of the EU and, in the Slovenian case, Slovenia legislation. Some decide to accept stricter rules like the ones from a Union of Slovenian Organic Farmers Associations (USOFA) named Biodar ("The Gift of Life") and the international standard Demeter.

 Demeter

Common EU legislation

Council Regulation No. 834/2007 + Commission Regulation No. 889/2008

Slovenian legislation

Regulations on organic production and processing of agricultural products and foodstuffs adopted in 2010 (follow the link to find the latest version of it as well as you can find out more about the regulations on the websites of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food)

General legal acts that regulate agriculture in Slovenia

General legal acts that regulate food processing in EU and Slovenia 

What terms and expressions can be used for organic products in Slovenia?

The official term that is used for organic food production and processing in Slovenia is ecological farming. So, the products which are made from such farming are called ecological (abbreviated eco) foodstuffs, but the term biological (abbreviated bio) can also be used. For instance, these prefixes can be used as bio yoghurt – eco yoghurt, bio flour – eco flour, bio juice – eco juice … the wrong prefix for organic groceries may confuse you, but if this applies to Slovene products, it is organic. The term organic is in Slovene the wrong prefix and should not be used but we can find them on many products because of the translation from English. Probably because the lack of knowledge in organic farming and the inconsistency of the translations.

What are the key prohibited and allowed products in organic farming?

 

Since the nutrients in liquid-soluble mineral fertilizers are in ionic form, they can be easily leached into groundwater, which can lead to nitrate contamination of the drinking water (the Slovenia position), whilst excess nitrate concentration in water and food is harmful to animals and people.

 

This is the case, for example, with Bt-corn, which is genetically engineered to produce a bacterial toxin that kills European corn borer larvae and has genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). By definition, genetic engineering is not a part of organic farming, it is a new technology (first GM crop in 1994), and some experts also point to the negative or often unknown effects of the use of GMO in the environmental sense, the impact on human and animal health and fertility.

More about GMO.

Therefore, battery cages for laying hens (including furnished or enriched cages) in organic agriculture are prohibited.

 

 

Videos on organic livestock farming

Organic farming in the EU

EU Comission, Organic farming: Kids' corner

What is organic farming?

The organic farm

More about ionising radiation.

Who controls organic farming?

According to the EU regulation on organic farming (controls and inspections), the verification of compliance with the production and processing of food is ensured by authorized institutions called certification bodies (CB). They function in an independent, impartial and competent way as all EU certification bodies should operate according to the SIST EN ISO/IEC 17065:2012 standard.

It is also agreed (the EU regulation on organic farming) that all certification bodies by the EU have their own codes. The codes are composed of three parts:

In Slovenia we have four certification bodies in organic farming:

KON-CERT Institute for inspection and certification in agriculture and in silviculture

Code: SI-EKO-001 prosim, dodajte v SI:

In the picture you can see a trademark appearing on organic foodstuffs certified by KON-CERT.

 

IKC UM Institute for the Control and Certification of University of Maribor

Code: SI-EKO-002

In the picture you can see a trademark appearing on organic foodstuffs certified by IKC UM.

 

Bureau veritas Bureau veritas d.o.o.

Code: SI-EKO-003

In the picture you can see a Bureau veritas logo.

 

TÜV Süd Sava Tüv süd sava d.o.o.

Code: SI–EKO-004 (in Slovenia since 2017)

In the picture you can see a TÜV SÜD SAVA logo.

 

Certification bodies perform two procedures: inspection and certification.

Inspection is an on-the-spot check. It is implemented in all those involved in the supply chain, that is to say from farm to shop, or ‘from farm to fork’ so to speak. Inspection shall be carried out at least once a year. It is carried out by a qualified inspector of the selected certification body.

How to inspect organic farming and what controls are reviewed by inspectors can be seen in this video.

Certification is a procedure in which the certification body, on the basis of an inspector's report, checks the compliance of the plant operation with the applicable organic farming rules. Should the certification procedure show the compliance with all relevant rules and regulations the plant receives a certificate.

The certificate is an official document which ensures that everything is done as it should be = in accordance with the provisions set out for organic farming.

 

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The farmer / processor certifies the ecological status for:

Non-certified products/stuffs should not be marketed as organic foods.

Where can I verify the validity of the certificate?

On the websites of the Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policy

When is the crop/food considered organic?

When the conversion period is passed successfully. 'Conversion’ means the transition from non-organic to organic farming within a given period of time, during which the provisions concerning the organic production have been applied.

The conversion period is a period from the commencement of the control (when the operator has notified his/her activity to CB or from the date of last unauthorised uses of products) until the achievement of ECO (organic) status for the products / foods.

The conversion period takes varying lengths of time.

Products of plant origin:

2 years = 24 months (annual plants, grasslands, perennial forage)

3 years = 36 months (permanent crops)

Products of animal origin:

1 year = 12 months (beekeeping)

With regard to the rearing of herbivores (ruminants, horses) the duration of the conversion period is linked to the conversion period of areas producing forage (= 2 years).

With regard to the rearing of non-herbivores (chickens, pigs), which are not fed with forages and roughage (grass, hay, silage), the conversion takes 1 year (= the conversion of the outer surfaces that serve as an access to open air).

Reduction of the conversion period is possible, but that is up to the Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Food on presentation of supporting material.

Video: The conversion to organic farming

Organic food labelling requirements

Rules of organic farming apply to food, feed and seeds. These must obligatorily be marked with the official organic logo of the EU (Euro Leaf).

evrolist (1)

 

EU legislation does not cover tobacco, textiles, cosmetics, cleaning products and foodstuffs of hunting and fishing. Therefore, these products and foodstuffs should not be marked with the official EU logo!

In addition, those foodstuffs for which there are no common rules in EU legislation shall not be labelled by the EU organic logo, although individual countries have introduced them as their national rules. Slovenian national regulations include:

The aforementioned must obligatorily be labelled by the national organic logo.

 

Organic foodstuffs can also be found with private logos:

 

Union of Slovenian Organic Farmers Associations (USOFA)

How consumers recognize organic product/foodstuff?

On farms or at markets, consumers have to look at the certificate displayed in a prominent place.

In stores organic foodstuffs are not accompanied by a certificate. This is not necessary as the declarations on prepacked food give the consumer the necessary information. If the foodstuff is not packaged and accompanied by a declaration, the seller must provide a certificate at our request.

What food information can consumers rely on to see that the product is really organic?

In Slovenia the name of the food goes with the prefix ecological (eco, bio).

A declaration of each foodstuff must display all the ingredients.

These ingredients can be of agricultural origin (derived from agricultural production or farming). Examples of agricultural ingredients include: milk, eggs, meat, beer, vegetables, fruits, sugar, yeast, etc.).

On the other hand, examples of non-agricultural ingredients include: water, salt, some additives.

The legislation defines an organic food as a food in which at least 95% of all agricultural ingredients are from controlled organic production/processing. A maximum of 5% of agricultural ingredients may be conventional, but only those agreed by legislation.

For the consumer to be informed which agricultural ingredients are produced on controlled organic farms, they should be appropriately labelled. This is done by adding the adjective organic to the ingredients: e. g. organic wheat, organic sugar, organic eggs, organic bacon ... Since declarations leave little room for labelling, the word organic can be substituted by an asterisk (*) and under the ingredients we add the explanation for it.

Organic foodstuffs marketed in the EU must obligatorily be marked with the official logo of the EU (Euro Leaf) and the code number of certification body that carried out the check.

 

Example: Food labelling for organic bread with seeds

6.4    Vegetable garden

As the name already indicates the fruit and vegetable garden is the part of the botanic garden intended for a garden that many people have at home. A variety of fruits and vegetables grow on both of them.

A list of vegetables that are common in Slovene gardens.

Slovenian name

English name

Scientific name

Lifetime

(A, B, P)*

Korenček

Carrot

Daucus carotta L.

B

Peteršilj (listnati, korenasti)

Parsley

Petroselinum crispum Hill

B

Zelena (belušna, listna, gomoljna)

Celery

Apium graveolens L.

B (A)

Redkvica

Radish

Raphanus sativus L.

A

Koleraba

Rutabaga, sweede or neep

Brassica napus L. subsp. rapifera

B

Repa

Turnip

Brassica rapa L.

B

Rdeča pesa

Red beet or beetroot

Beta vulgaris L.

B

Zgodnji krompir

Early-season potato

Solanum tuberosum L.

A

Zelje (belo, rdeče)

Cabbage (white, red)

Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.

A

Ohrovt (listnati, glavnati)

Savoy cabbage and Kale

Brassica oleracea var. sabauda L.
and var. acephala

B

Ohrovt (brstični)

Brussels sprout

Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera L.

B

Cvetača

Cauliflower

Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.

A

Brokoli

Broccoli

Brassica oleracea var. italica L.

A

Kolerabica

Kohlrabi

Brassica oleracea var. gongylodes L.

A

Blitva

Chard

Beta vulgaris L. subsp. vulgaris var. vulgaris

A

Fižol (stročji, za luščenje, za zrnje)

Bean

Phaseolus vulgaris L.

A

Radič (glavnati, solatnik)

Radicchio

Cicorium intybus L.

A

Solata

Lettuce

Lactuca sativa L.

A

Česen (jesenska, spomladanski)

Garlic

Allium sativum L.

B

Čebula (jesenska, spomladanska)

Onion

Allium cepa L.

B

Por

Leek

Allium porrum L.

B

Paprika

Bell pepper

Capsicum annumm L.

A (P)

Paradižnik

Tomato

Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.

A (P)

Kumare (solatne, za vlaganje)

Cucumber

Cucumis sativus L.

A

Bučke

Zucchini

Cucurbita pepo L. var. cylindrica

A

* A – annual, B – biennial plant, P – perennial

Vegetables do not grow on the same places every year, but they migrate like nomads from one part of the garden to another and this is called crop rotation.

Crop rotation is an order of planting vegetables, crops, herbs that provides a healthy growth of this plants. This can take place in greenhouses, tunnels, etc.

It is based on the research that every plant in the same botanic family needs similar nutrients and hosts the same pathogens and pests. To prevent the growth of pest and diseases of the same botanic family and deplete the nutrients from the soil we must change the position of our plants in a specific order.

Every plant has a specific form of growth. Some develop a shallow root system and some roots reach very deep into the soil, this is the result of how deep they need to grow to reach the nutrients they need. That is why the soil can quickly lose specific nutrients when plants with same length of roots grow on this soil every year. Other plants are like a soil booster and with their quick and exuberantly growth they impede the growth of weed.

Plants from the same botanic family can get back to the same bed after 3 or 4 years, depending on which system of crop rotation we choose in our garden.

6.4.1    Crop rotation system

We must know:

There are roughly three main classes of vegetables when talking about their requirements.

To create the best conditions for each crop, we don’t have to manure all the beds every year.

With this information we can separate our vegetables in 3-4 groups, that grow on 3-4 fields and the fields represent our garden beds.

First the garden is divided theoretical before we can dig the soil.

In crop rotation we have to be careful about the plant roots. Vegetables that develop long and deep roots (cabbage, cauliflower, beans, peas) are planted after those with shallower roots (cucumber, onion, lettuce, spinach). The reason is in the soil nutrients, because the plants with long roots can later get those nutrients from deeper layers and the soil will have more air what positively affects the growth.

Video: Crop Rotation Made Simple – Rotate Your Vegetable Beds for Healthier Produce

It is also good to know that some plants simply harmonize and support each other, they are good companions, and some can’t grow together.

6.4.2    List of plants that can or cannot grow together

Vegetable name (main tillage)

Good companion plants

Bad companion plants

Garlic (autumn, spring)

Tomato, beet, fruit trees, strawberries, carrots, cucumber, lamb's lettuce, chamomile

Onion, leek, beans, peas, brassica

Onion (autumn, spring)

Black salsify, pumpkin, dill, lettuce, beet, lamb's lettuce, strawberries, zucchini, cucumber, savory, chamomile

Garlic, peas, potatoes, leek, brassica, beans

Leek

Kohlrabi, strawberries, endive, celery, black salsify, lettuce, lamb's lettuce, tomato, carrot, chamomile

Beans, parsley, beet, onion, peas, brassica, garlic

Carrot

Onion, leek, garlic, mangold, endive, chiccory – radicchio, radish, tomato, dill, black salsify, chive, thyme, peas, sage, young lettuce

Beet

Parsley (leaf, root)

Radicchio, radish, lamb's lettuce, tomato

Lettuce

Celery

Brassica, tomato, beans, cucumber, leek, lettuce, chamomile

Potato, corn

Radicchio

Beans, spinach, lamb's lettuce, carrot, nasturtium, kohlrabi, lettuce, young lettuce, mangold, tomato, peas, brassica

Cucumber, parsley

Lettuce

Garlic, onion, leek, black salsify, corn, dill, chicory, radicchio, celery, beans, brassica, rhabarbarin, peppermint, beet, cucumber, peas, lamb's lettuce, tomato, cress, fennel

Brassica, parsley, celery

Endive

Leek, beans, brassica, fennel

-------------------------

Radish

Beans, parsley, spinach, carrot, peas, young lettuce, chamomile, lettuce, black salsify, tomato, strawberries, endive

Beans, beet

Kohlrabi

Lettuce, peas, black salsify, potato, strawberries, spinach, beans, celery, leek, radicchio, radish, tomato, beet

 

Turnip

Dill, spinach, young lettuce, beans

------------------------------

Cabbage, Kale, brussels sprout, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Kohlrabi

Mangold, endive, celery, beans, tomato, rhabarbarin, lamb's lettuce, lettuce, potato, young lettuce, radicchio, radish, strawberries, cucumber

Garlic, onion, peas, leek

Beet

Kohlrabi, dill, onion, garlic, young lettuce, cucumber, beans, cumin, coriander

Potato, leek, spinach, beans, carrot, corn

Mangold

Brassica, radish, beans, carrot, beet, radicchio

--------------------------------

Cucumber

Beans, celery, beet, fennel, onion, garlic, lettuce, dill, brassica, peas, cumin, coriander, leek

Tomato, radicchio, radish, potato

New potato

Dill, beans, kohlrabi, horseradish, peppermint, borage, corn, peas, marigold, whirlybird scarlet, broad bean

Tomato, peas, cucumber, celery, beet

Bell pepper

Mangold, radish, spinach, lettuce

Beans

Tomato

Peppermint, brassica, celery, radish, radicchio, young lettuce, carrot, kohlrabi, corn, bean, parsley, leek, beet, garlic, lettuce

Beet, fennel, potato, peas, cucumber

Beans

Strawberries, celery, beet, brassica, tomato, cucumber, watermelon and melon, mangold, spinach, radicchio, lamb's lettuce, sweet corn, asparagus, black salsify, lettuce, radish, eggplant, zucchini, savoury, sage

Garlic, onion, leek, charlotte, bell pepper, basil, peas, chive, fennel

Zucchini

Basil, bean, onion, corn, beet, and brassica

Potato

 

Domestic (=autochthonous, indigenous) varieties are agricultural crops that originated in a specific area and was not brought from elsewhere to cultivate it because the climate is similar or even better for the plant. A plant can become a domestic species after 15 years of cultivation and when the seeds are made from there on in Slovenia, for vine this timespan has to overcome 30 years.

Naturalized or traditional varieties are varieties of foreign origin, but are cultivated in Slovenia for over 15 years only for vine there is a limit of minimum 50 years and the plant must be adapted to our climate. The preservation and reproduction of seeds has to take place in Slovenia.

6.4.3 A bug or insect hotel

There is an insect hotel in the Botanical Garden UM.

If properly positioned and made of the right materials, the beneficial organisms (ladybirds, green lacewings, wild bees, earwigs, and others) will have a perfect dwelling.

More about the insect hotel, how to build one, who are the guests in it …

Many animals such as insects, acarina, nematodes, birds, snails and rodents may cause harm to gardens. The pests feed by chewing host plant tissue and suck out plant juices. The excessive multiplication of pest most often occurs due to incorrect crop rotation, unfavourable pedo-conditions, incorrect plant nutrition, monoculture, or simply weather conditions that favour the multiplication of the pests.

A way of minimizing and keeping under control such attacks is biotic plant protection, where living organisms are used as main agents that kill pests on our vegetables. The simplest and increasingly common way in the garden to attract beneficial insects is to build an insect hotel. There are many ready-made insect hotels available to buy in a shop, but you can make your own using found natural materials.

You can find out more about biotic protection in Wikipedia.

Who lives in an insect hotel and how to make one?

An insect hotel is built for crawling and flying bugs that eat pests that harm garden veggies. Depending on the size of the holes and the type of material, various types of useful insects inhabit the hotel. The hotel provides shelter during bad weather and winter. In addition, the hotel supports their reproduction. The hotel can be a small container in which we place different materials, it may also be a larger wooden structure with a total area divided into spaces filled with various materials, and thus the hotel attracts a large number of useful animals to our garden, both frogs and reptiles, as well as many species of predatory and parasitic insects. When constructing we use as much natural materials and materials not treated with chemical products as possible. Firstly, arrange some clay bricks with holes on the ground as a base (it is recommended that the holes are about 4 to 10 cm) and leave larger areas that should be filled with straw. The base layer will attract reptiles, frogs and some soil beneficial insects.

Above the clay base, assemble a boarded frame, which should be at least 15 cm wide. Place the boards inside the frame to create partitions and any number of different large squares. Fill the squares with wooden tubes of different diameters; what matters is that they are hollow. Woods such as bamboo, osier, straw or other wooden tubes can be used. An insect hotel offers refuge for many types of insects that lay their eggs in holes, where they are protected from frost and moisture.

The remaining squares can be filled with dry branches, trunks dotted with holes (use various drill bits to drill holes in the trunk and ensure a gap between them), dry straw or grass, disintegrated timber or clay roofing tiles that have several smaller holes.

Place a roof or protection against the sun and rain on the frame, thus prolonging a life of such a hotel and protecting hotel guests. It is advisable to leave the hotel open on one side and close the other side with the boards for insects to hibernate in winter. The open front side can be protected by iron grid, thus preventing the loss of materials due to rain and wind as well as preventing bird attacks. If necessary, cut out small squares from the grid, making it easier for larger insects to come in and out of the hotel.

Besides the animals listed below, this hotel will attract bumblebees and wild bees that help with pollination in the garden.

Some hotels have a bird nest; however, attention must be paid as birds feed on many insects, including beneficial ones. Beneficial insects that soon inhabit the hotel are divided according to the method of destroying pests into a group of parasites and a group of predators.

6.4.4 Compost

When we're done eating we can dispose of organic waste in the compost, which is located in the garden in the shade of trees.

In the compost pile organic material is deposited and microorganisms process it into compost. In order to make the compost with which we actually feed (cultivate) plants, as high quality as possible, only the materials that can be processed by microorganisms are deposited in the compost. Therefore, we simply cannot throw in it anything we want.

Find out more: What is a compost pile, how composting is done, what belongs and what does not belong in the compost pile?

In a compost (compost pile), composting is carried out. It’s a human controlled process of decomposition of organic matter into the most basic and highly efficient type of organic fertilizer. Compost is very similar to forest humus, except that it is produced by a human, and the length of its creation is much shorter.

Anyone who has organic waste can compost, but for the production of a quality compost it is necessary to take into account some facts and limitations.

History

We cannot accurately determine the exact origin and time of compost’s inception. According to written sources, the compost is mentioned 2,600 years BC in Mesopotamia. Its use was also mentioned in the sources of the Israeli tribes, the Romans and the Greeks. It was mentioned in the 12th century by the Arabs. In America its native qualities were valued by both natives and migrants. English farmers composted the manure with the addition of fish, which was efficient. The use of compost was drastically reduced by the research of German scientist Justus von Liebig (theory of mineral substances in plant nutrition) and at the same time, his research contributed to the development of chemically-synthetic agents. It was in 1943, with the publishing of the book by British agronomist Sir Albert Howard, that interest in using compost increased again. Nowadays, the scope and the development of compost have been well researched, and its use has been on the rise.

What organism groups are responsible for organic matter decomposition?

Thermophilic bacteria and fungi, which rapidly and continuously multiply and initially provide decomposition of easily degradable substances, such as sugar, starch and protein.

What belongs in the compost and how do we create one?

Composting is accelerated by the imitation of the natural decomposition of organic matter by means of microorganisms. They are responsible for the formation of humus that occurs through the composting process.

For good compost we must first know which materials can be composted and how the composting process takes place. The process is divided into three main stages: decomposition, maturation and bursting.

With the correct ratio of organic matter (nitrogen, water and air) the so-called aerobic composting may take place, during which the temperature in the compost pile can rise to 65 °C. When maintaining this temperature for at least 3 days, the hygienic purity of the compost pile is achieved. At temperatures of around 55 °C human pathogenic microbes, bacteria and phytopathogens are destroyed. When the temperature rises to 60 °C, whole seeds of various weeds are destroyed (the achievement of such high temperatures is a very demanding process; therefore, we try to avoid the introduction of these substances into the compost pile).

The described phase is called DECOMPOSITION. Microorganisms need nitrogen (N) for propagation, and carbon (C) for food and energy. When carbon and nitrogen are in the ratio of 30:1 (all ingredients must be finely grounded, it’s sufficiently airy and there is just the right amount of water and air), the degradation process is the fastest, and thus the decomposition phase may expire in one month, but usually lasts from 2 to 3 months.

The next stage is called MATURATION. The process of cooling occurs from around 40 °C to 26 °C. At this stage, various microorganisms, fungi and other animals break down complex organic matter, create a more stable organic substance, which can already be called humus, its C:N ratio drops to 20:1 (from a ratio of 30:1). This phase lasts about two months, but the bundle loses a large part of its volume.

In the third phase the temperature is still falling and is approaching the ambient temperature. Millipedes, compost worms, shear, worms and mites assume the role of the degradation of the most durable material in the compost such as lignin and cellulose, but they never fully degrade. After 4 months of the third stage, we get a crumbly, light and black soil with a scent of the forest. This typical scent and texture are also indications that the composting process is complete. The mature compost, which is suitable for fertilization, is obtained after about 8 months.

What goes in the compost?

What does not go in the compost?

In the compost you should not put the following: glass, metal, paper (printed matter, cartons), liquids, bones, ashes, battery packs, chemicals (varnishes, paints, medicines, oils), assembled materials (diapers), hygiene products, appliances (hazards due to heavy metals).

For composting in the home garden, we can simply make a compost pile (open composting system). This, because of the non-aesthetic look, is usually placed somewhere along the edge of the plot. We can also compost in a compost that is more beautiful, because of the closed sides, but it is more difficult to achieve proper aerobic composting.

The compost is therefore a built-in space with four sides made of concrete, wood or plastic. Usually, one side is made to open or close on demand, thus facilitating access to the mature compost at the bottom.

It is highly recommended, if possible, to compost at home, since composting positively influences the environment (reduced volume of household waste, care for the environment, a high quality organic fertilizer is introduced from the compost to the garden, and finally, we save money for the purchase of fertilizers).

6.4.5 Raised garden bed

A raised garden bed made according to permaculture principles is an excellent idea for smaller gardens, for the elderly and physically impaired. A raised garden bed will produce lush crops of vegetables!

Find out more: What is a raised garden bed and hugel beds!

One of the basic elements of permaculture gardening are certainly raised garden beds. Their principle is based on raised beds in a closed frame (wooden, concrete). What gives an advantage to these beds is not only easier accessibility and aesthetic appearance, but also the construction of a raised bed.

When building, we must consider the fact that the raised bed should drain well, it should be airy and have sufficient nutrients for release in the long run. In addition, various pests such as voles should be prevented from entering the bed from the bottom. However, we should also consider the appropriate height (approximately 60 cm) and width (a maximum of 150 cm) in order to facilitate handling.

Firstly, a raised bed frame and three sides of the bed should be taken into consideration (with this construction method one side is left open, through which material will be introduced). A metal mesh with openings smaller than 1 × 1 cm shall be placed on the bottom of the bed. Secondly, place a layer of sheep wool on the mesh. Wool sheep breeds in Slovenia are less useful for processing, but very welcoming in raised garden beds as it drives away voles with its smell. At the same time, it is nitrogenous fertiliser. A few centimetres thick layer of sand is then added on the layer of wool, which will increase drainage and prevent the pests from entering the bed. At least 20 cm thick layer of organic matter (wood chips, bark, sawdust, branches, straw, dry cut grass, foliage leaves ...) is added onto the sand. This layer will serve as a long-term supply of nutrients. Then, at least a 10 cm thick layer of livestock manure (aged manure for about 6 months) is put on the organic layer. On the livestock manure, a layer of cardboard box is placed, which will serve as a barrier to the roots so that they will not come into direct contact with manure. On the cardboard, 15−20 cm thick layer of soil should be poured, which will play a role as a medium for plant growth.

The bed thus prepared has a lifetime of at least 7 years before it needs to be emptied and refilled. Due to its composition, the raised bed is also faster and easier to warm up, which is considered an advantage in early spring and late autumn. In addition to solar radiation, a source of heat is also a decomposition of organic material. Using fresh livestock manure does not support the following vegetables in the first year: pulses, root vegetables, onions, garlic, chard, chicory, spinach, lamb’s lettuce, rhubarb, beetroot and radish.

What is a hugel bed?

A hugel bed is very similar to a raised bed, but much easier to create since it is not surrounded by a frame. When building a hugel bed, the organic matter, which may also consist of kitchen waste, is put directly on the garden floor. Livestock manure is applied to the organic matter followed by some soil. Mound the soil in the shape of a dome, which should not be too wide in order to facilitate the handling. Continue with a layer of cardboard box or other cellulosic materials, covered with a thick layer of straw or dry cut grass. The hugel bed is finished. Due to the intense decomposition occurring under the layer of cellulosic materials, the temperature is higher in the first year as well as the level of nutrients. Therefore, the planting of plants with a greater demand for nutrients is recommended during this year: brassica vegetables (cauliflower, cabbage, and sprout), fruiting vegetables (cucumbers, courgettes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplant).

6.5 Fruit garden

In the fruit and vegetable garden you can find the representative fruit shrubs for instance currant, gooseberry, jostaberry hybrid, raspberry, blueberry and aronia berry. Also, their pruning forms are shown as well as pruning forms of vine and kiwi?

In 2017 the botanic garden recently added to the collection of shrubs some fruit trees. Some apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach and persimmon trees and altogether they have 38 of these trees. The collection is designed for practical demonstration of pruning, training and production of the fruits?)..

Fruit production is in Slovenia an important branch of agriculture. The data from 2016 shows that from all agricultural land in Slovenia the biggest part are meadows and pastures (57,5%), following by fields (36,8%) and permanent plantations (56%) that include orchards, vineyards and hop gardens or hop plantations.

6.5.1 Fruit production in Slovenia

A fruit is an edible part of a plant, mostly grown on a tree or shrub, sometimes on an annual plant like strawberries. The flavour is mostly sweet or slightly sour and they contain a high ratio of fruit sugar – fructose. In botany a fruit is defined as a mature ovary of a plant, including its seeds and surrounding tissues.

Morphological the fruit is divided in 3 types: simple fruit, aggregate fruit or etaerio and the ensemble of fruits or infructescence.

In Slovenia the fruit production has a long tradition. Archeologic researches show that first humans picked the fruits for food, and later in monasteries and manors they cultivated trees to access the fruits easily. In 19th century the fruit production experienced a big boom. Typical for this time is that all fruit trees grew beside crops or in orchards where the livestock was grazing. Fruit production develops to final stage in the middle of 19th century when the first school of fruit-growing was established. According to the Statistical office of Slovenia in 2016, 42.739 tons of apples were produced on 2416 ha, 3175 t of pears on 198 ha and 4694 tons of peaches, apricots and other fruits on 300 ha.

6.5.2 Pomological classification of fruit species

In comparison to vegetables that are reproduced with seeds, fruits can be reproduced with plant parts such as offsets or exfoliation.

Stone fruit

Stone fruit – these fruits are considered as closed juicy fruits and the stone is called drupe.

Stone fruits have a exocarp-like skin, a juicy mesocarp and a woody stone endocarp.

Monocarpic stone fruits are peach (Prunus persica L.), plum (Prunus domestica L.), apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), cherry (Prunus avium L.) and sour cherry (Prunus cerasus L.)

 

Kernel fruits or pomes

Kernel fruits or pomes – these fruits are a subgroup of stone fruits and are typical for group Maloideae within the rose family, Rosaceae.

Their pistil is made of 1-5 incomplete fertile leaves that are grown together at the bottom. Pistil fruits contain of exocarp and a juicy mesocarp. The pear, common apple or wild apple create from 5 fertile leaves an endocarp – core. On the upper side of the fruit is the stalk and at the bottom there are remnants of calyx.

As kernel fruits are known for instance apples (Malus domestica Borkh.), pears (Pyrus communis L.), quince (Cydonia oblonga Mill.) and medlar (Mespilus germanica L.).

 

Soft fruit

mostly berries are known as soft fruits.

In botanic they represent species as strawberries, blueberries, currant and other shrubs.

Berries (lat. bacca) are also closed juicy fruits, develop from the pistil and have more seeds with juicy flesh.

Usually they develop from more pistils of one blossom. For instance, the raspberry develops from more pistils and merge into a single fruit.

Some examples of soft fruit are: strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa Durch.), raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.), bramble (Rubus fruticosus L.), currant (Ribes sp. L.), gooseberry (Ribes uva-crispa L.), blueberry (Vaccinium sp. L.), elder tree (Sambucus nigra), cornel (Cornus mas).

 

Nuts

Examples: walnut (Juglans regia L.), hazel (Corylus avellana L.), almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch.) and chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)

 

Tropical fruits

In this group we find the following examples: persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.), fig (Ficus carica L.), kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa Lindl.), citrus fruits (Citrus sp. L.) and olive tree (Olea europaea L.).

 

Fruits can grow either on trees, shrubs or even on evergreen plants. For trees it is usual that they have a woody stem that is called trunk, a shrub does not have a trunk but has a lot of woody stems.

In the following table, you can see which fruit belongs to which group.

Stone fruits

Kernel fruits

Soft fruits (berries)

Nuts

Tropical fruits

peach
plum
cherry
apricot
sour cherry

apple
pear
quince

strawberry
raspberry
currant
gooseberry
blueberry
elder tree

walnut
hazel
almond
chestnut

fig
persimmon
kiwi
olive tree
citrus fruits

 

6.5.3 Reproduction of fruit plants

In comparison to vegetables that are mainly reproduced with seeds, fruits can be reproduced either vegetatively or generatively.

Generative (sexual) reproduction

Generative reproduction means that the plant is raised from the seed. A new organism is formed by the union of the male and female sex cells. A new plant, obtained from a seed or generatively is called a seedling. Seedlings are very lush, late bearing and are uneven in their properties. In principle, they are used only as a rootstock for fruit plants that do not have suitable vegetative rootstocks.

Vegetative (asexual) reproduction or cloning

In the case of vegetative propagation, sexual merge does not occur; new specimens originate from parts of the mother plant. In this type of reproduction, we use tissues or parts of plants (roots, buds, shoots).

When plants are propagated with tissues (tissue culture), we do this under controlled conditions of the laboratory; new plants grow in sterile conditions in growth chambers. In addition, plants can be propagated through meristem culture (mericloning) or shoot-tip culture. Among fruit species meristem culture is used mainly in strawberries propagation.

There are various forms of vegetative propagation of fruit plants:

Reproduction with hardwood and semi-hardwood cuttings

Hardwood cuttings are prepared during standstill when the foliage falls. Suitable shoots are the ones that are matured over one-year. The length of the cuttings can vary from plant to plant, but a general guide is that they should be at least pencil thick and 18-20 cm long. Over the winter, they are kept in bundles/bunches and in a dark storage room at a temperature of 8 °C. In the spring, they are transplanted to a depth of 15 cm. In this way, currant and fig tree reproduce the most, as well as the quince.

Semi-hardwood cuttings are taken from the tree in the summer when the wood is still slightly soft and partially mature. The time of taking cuttings depends on the fruit species. In cherries, pears and chestnuts it is in the second half of June, and in the first half of July for blueberries and olives.

More: Plant Propagation by Stem Cuttings

Root cuttings (parts of the roots) are made from young plants that are cut in late winter or early spring; at that time the roots are well supplied with stored carbohydrates.

Layering

Layering is a manner of reproduction appropriate for bushes and shrubs.

We bend a one-year matured shoot and bury it in a trench we previously excavated. Then, we cover the entire set with soil. Along the top of the shoot, which now sticks from the ground, we put some sort of support so that the fragile shoot has somewhere to grow along. By the end of the growing period, the shoot uproots. In the autumn we dig it up and transplant to the desired permanent place.

Budding

Budding is when we join two different living tissues of plants so that they continue to grow together.

Scion (upper part) is a one-year old shoot, which we use to bud. The plant or tree will be of the scion’s species.

Rootstock (lower part) is a plant, which we usually choose for its roots. It can be cultivated either generative or vegetative.

With budding we keep the characteristics of the scion plant. We use the rootstock to accommodate the scion to the climate and the way scion behave in it (we can regulate the lushness of fruit trees, replacing a plant’s cultivar, repairing damaged trees etc.).

Budding is done in two periods; in the spring when the buds are active (April, the first days of May), and in summer and autumn (beginning of August, early September), when the buds are dormant.

It’s very important that when the plants join, the scion’s cambium is covered with the cambium of the rootstock.

Cambium is a layer of cells between the wood and bark and plays an important role in thickening of the plant. When the scion’s cambium and rootstock’s cambium join, the plant is able to flow nutrients between them.

 

6.5.4 Forms of growth (habitus) of fruit species

Fruit growers form fruit plants according to their purpose and conditions in plantations. This is called cultivation. In the case of trees, we distinguish round and flat forms, and in the case of berries, we know the shape pavilion and pergola.

Fruit plants grow mostly as fruit trees, shrubs or semi-shrubs, as well as herbaceous plants.

Fruit tree: It is a perennial plant that has a woody trunk and can grow to different heights.

The tree consists of three main parts:

1 Roots:

The main function of the root is to:

2 Trunk:

The function of the trunk is that it:

3 Crown:

The crown consists of the main branches and branches of different side orders. Each individual branch carries leaves with flowers, later fruits.

 

6.5.5 Methods of cultivation

Methods of cultivation are achieved and maintained with cutting. Depending on the purpose of implementing the cut, we distinguish: educational, rejuvenation, correction and maintenance cut.

The methods of cultivation of fruit plants changed with the changing environment and the development of fruit production. In practice, methods that force trees into unnatural growth are not recommended, which in turn would require a lot of cuts and other work. 

Methods of cultivation of fruit plants are methods with which we cultivate the crown of the plants. It’s very important that the method is designed to be simple, that the tree gets the most sunlight and that it takes the shortest amount of time to bring the plant to its full growth.

There are several factors that decide which method of cultivation we choose to implement. These are:

Methods of cultivations are divided into round and flat.

Round shapes

Flat shapes

Natural spreading of the crown. The branches are distributed in all directions around the trunk. Such forms include:

  • Natural pyramid crowns
  • Improved pyramidal crown
  • A sparse crown
  • Kettle-shaped crown
  • A tight spindle
  • Very narrow spindle
  • Sun axis

With the cut, we control the growth and development of the tree branches are arranged in only two directions. Such forms include:

  • Cordons (oblique cordon, V - cordon, vertical cordon, S - cordon)
  • Various palms (regular, oblique, horizontal, flatter, lepidy ...)

 

Fruit species, especially berries that are mostly on shrubs are mostly grown next to a supportive skeleton.

Shape

Description

Fruit species

Double row

A structure of support that is built in two rows. The offshoots are tied to it.

Currant, kiwi

Support system (system of wires between pillars)

Offshoots are tied to the wire. The name depends on how we tie the wire (T-system or V-system)

Raspberries, kiwi, vineyard, bramble

Pergola or roof planting system

Offshoots are wrapping around the support system and can be also tied

Kiwi

6.5.6    A list of fruits that are common in Slovene gardens.

 

Fruit species

Scientific name

Foto

apple tree

Malus domestica Borkh.

Pear

Pyrus communis L.

hruška

Peach

Prunus persica L.

breskev

Cherry

Prunus avium L.

Plum

Prunus domestica L.

sliva

Currant

Ribes nigrum

Ribes rubrum

črni ribezrdeči ribez

Raspberry

Rubus idaeus L.

malina

Brumble

Rubus fruticosus L.

robida

Gooseberry

Ribes uva - crispa L. syn. R. grossularia

kosmulja

Persimmon

Diospyros kaki Thunb.

kaki (1)

Cornelian cherry or cornelian cherry dogwood

Cornus mas L.

dren

Common sea buckthorn

Hippophae rhamnoides L.

rakitovec

Black elder

Sambucus nigra L. ssp. nigra

bezeg

Walnut

Juglans regia L.

oreh

Aronia

Aronia melanocarpa L.

2015-08-07 09.32.23

Kiwi

Actinidia deliciosa Planch.

kivi

Northern highbush blueberry

Vaccinium corymbosum L.

IMG_20170627_200713 (2)

Honeyberry

Lonicera caerulea L. var. kamtschatica

Cranberrry,

Lingonberry,

Partridgeberry, or cowberry

Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.

Nimam slike, jo lahko snamem z interneta?

common Fig

Lingonberry

Ficus carica L.

Vaccinium vitis-idea L.

IMG_20170620_170618 (1)IMG_20170620_170559 (1)

Strawberry

Fragaria spp. L.

IMG_20170625_173918 (1)

 

6.5.7 Fruit processing

When the fruits stored for a short period of time have ripened, there are many ways to put your ripe fruit surplus to use. Use food preservation methods to prevent fruits from spoilage. There are several methods of preserving fruits:

Preservation methods alter the organoleptic properties of fruits (appearance, taste, smell, shape) as well as their nutrient value.

Fruit drying

Fruit drying is a very old method of food preservation. The percent of water most fruits lose in the drying process is 70% to 80%, thus extending the shelf life of fruits and reducing the risks of food spoilage. In addition, the drying process helps maintain fruits’ colour, flavour and good quality.

When is fruit considered to be sufficiently dry? Fruits are sufficiently dry when they are pliable and springy after squeezing a few pieces together.

There are several ways to dry fruits.

Using the sun to dry fruits is the oldest known method in which only water evaporates, while vitamins and minerals remain. Our climatic conditions, characterized by having rather humid and not enough sunny days make the food dry too slowly.

Drying in hot air dryers allows the temperature and air flow to be controlled and fruits to be turned over.

Drying fruits at home can be done using electric dryers, in which the temperature can be easily controlled.

The process of drying the fruits can be also done in an oven.

Lyophilization is considered the best technique of drying berries with soft flesh. This method, also known as freeze-drying, uses freezing and then sublimation of water at very low pressures. The frozen water contained in fruits’ structure is removed in the form of steam. This is called sublimation. To create sublimation, energy in the form of heat is needed. Compared with conventional drying, the process of lyophilization is slower, it requires much more energy, and therefore it is used only for sensitive and expensive types of fruit whose fruits retain the structure, aroma, colour and vitamins.

Freezing

Freezing is one of the most common ways of preserving foods where a large number of small ice crystals are formed, decreasing cellular damage in fruit tissue. Properly frozen fruit will maintain most of their nutritional value and fresh flavour. Slow freezing causes large ice crystals to form, which break cellular walls. Such unfrozen fruits will be of poor quality. Therefore, to reduce the amount of cellular damage, freeze fruits as rapidly as possible. Freezing can be done at the temperatures between -20 and -40 degrees Celsius. Fruit can be frozen in freezer compartments or chest freezer. To prevent fruits from drying out store them in airtight containers.

Raspberry and Blueberry Ice Cream Recipe

Ingredients :

Directions:

Mash the fruit or use a blender, add the sugar, the juice from half a lemon, milk and whipped cream. Pour the mixture into moulds and place it in the freezer for two hours until consistent.

Pasteurization

Pasteurization is a process where foods are heated to 70−95 degrees Celsius. The temperature and time of pasteurisation depend on the type of food. During the process, microorganisms and enzymes are destroyed; however, spores of microorganisms are not affected by pasteurization and grow under favourable conditions normally.

Fruit juice can only be used to describe a product which is 100% of fruit juice (it does not contain added sugar, colour and preservatives). Pasteurization can increase storage life of fruit juice.

Fruit nectar is a mixture of fruit juice and water to which sweetening or citric acid can be added. Fruit nectar must contain at least 25% fruit juice.

Fruit syrup is a concentrated liquid made of fruit juice combined with sugar. Fruit syrup must contain at least 10% fruit juice. Usually, the desired amount of water is added before drinking it.

Sterilization

Sterilization is a process in which foods (fruits) are sterilized at a heat of 100 degrees Celsius.

Sterilization in a closed container without air access is called cooking.

Fruit compote consists of fruits in the sugar and water solution. It can be from one or more types of fruit (mixed compote).

Fruit butter is fruit and sugar that have been cooked down to a thick, spreadable texture. Fruit butter can be made from one or more types of fruit.

Compared with fruit butter jams contain some pieces of fruits’ flesh, which have not been cooked for a long time. A higher amount of sugar is needed to set jam in comparison to fruit butter.

Aronia and sour cherries jam recipe

Ingredients:

 

 

Glossary

Botanist is a scientist who knows a great deal about plants, the way they grow, the differences between them and the like.

Herbalist is a person who grows, collects, sells, or specializes in the use of herbs. He uses herbs in combination with other natural products or mixtures such as honey, wax, oil, clay, etc. What is more, he makes tinctures, ointments, herbal oils and herbal tea blends.

Herbaceous perennials are plants that do not have much wood and its stems are green and soft. Their above-ground growth largely or totally dies back in winter.

Woody plants or plants with woody stems are plants whose stems and larger roots are reinforced with wood. Their above- and below-ground parts do not die in winter. Woody plants are usually trees, shrubs, or lianas.

Kitchen herbs are often referred to as spices. However, many herbs such as tarragon, oregano, basilica, etc. may be used as spices.

Phytotherapy (also called herbal medicine or herbalism) refers to the use of plant-derived medications in the treatment and prevention of disease.

Pharmacy is an interdisciplinary subject concerned with science and medicine. It also covers the area of natural treatment and the production of medicinal products based on plant extracts.

Scientific names of plants are unique plant and animal names used across the world by scientists and other professionals regardless of the language they speak or write, because scientific names are always Latin or Latinized words. Scientific names reduce confusion and make communication much more certain. The scientific names consist of two terms, the genus name (similarly to surnames in humans) and the species name. The genus name always starts with a capital letter and the species name always starts with a small letter. There are rules to follow when writing scientific names: the genus name is always italicized or underlined (in handwriting). The genus name and the species name are always followed by an author citation (citing the person who first validly published a botanical name). You can find out more on scientific names of plants here.

Herbal drugs are dried herbs or dried parts of herbs.

pathogens - Fungal and bacterial infections on plant parts that can survive the composting process and can again infect the same crops

PPP - Plant protection products are chemical-synthetic substances used in agriculture for the protection and treatment of crops